REM Sleep and Learning

Why is rapid eye movement sleep so important to learning?

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is considered active sleep and comprises 20-25% of normal sleep for an adult in a night. There is intense brain activity during REM sleep. Some research shows that REM sleep aids in information processing. REM sleep appears to be critical in the consolidation of memories after learning. In 1994, Karni and others conducted a research experiment to determine a link between REM sleep and learning (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). For their research, participants learned a new skill. The participants that had a normal night’s sleep or did not have their REM sleep interrupted showed performance improvement. Performance did not improve in the participants who had their REM sleep interrupted. Their research also showed that short naps involving REM sleep also enhanced learning. 

According to Wood, Wood, & Boyd (2011), the high percentage of time an infant spends in REM sleep leads to the conclusion that REM sleep is important in the neurological development of infants. I can see how that conclusion can be drawn since infancy is an important time of learning. According to my research, REM sleep is important in sifting through and organizing experiences and then storing the information in memory. Perhaps the amount of REM sleep an infant gets determines how quickly or slowly they master a new skill than other babies their age?

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Genetics, Brain, Structure and Behavior

The following is a Power Point Presentation done in collaboration by the team of T. Cross, M. Lewis, and myself. Please click the link to see the presentation.

Genetics, Brain, Structure and Behavior

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Absolute Threshold and Vision

What is the absolute threshold and how does it relate to vision? Provide an example of how this influences your perception of an object.

According to Wood, Wood, & Boyd (2011), absolute threshold is the minimum amount of sensory stimulation that can be detected by a person 50% of the time. Absolute threshold can simply be defined as the difference between not being able to perceive a stimulus and just being able to perceive it. Wood, Wood, & Boyd (2011) used a threshold of a doorway to explain absolute threshold. In terms of vision, the absolute threshold refers to the smallest level of light that can be detected. An example would be a lit candle. If a person can see it from a distance of 5 miles but not further, then that person’s absolute threshold of vision is 5 miles.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Motor Pathway Damage and Parkinson's Disease

How would you describe the damage to the motor pathway in the brain of a person with Parkinson’s disease?

According to Sue, Sue, & Sue (2010), Parkinson’s may be caused by lesions in the motor area of the brainstem. This is due to the loss of dopamine – producing brain cells. According to Knierim (2012), the damage to the motor pathway of a Parkinson’s patient is caused by the death of dopaminergic neuron in the substania nigra pars compacta. The substania nigra is part of the basal ganglia and lies in the midbrain. The activity in this part of the brain excites the direct pathway and inhibits the indirect pathway. The loss of the nigrostriatal pathway, a dopamine pathway that connects the substania nigra and the striatum, alters the excitation and inhibition in the basal ganglia. This reduces the excitation of the motor cortex. The reduction of the thalamic excitation interferes with the motor cortex’s ability to generate the commands for movement. While the cause of the death of these neurotransmitters is still completely unknown, researchers have some theories as to the cause (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). These theories include infections of the brain, toxins, cerebrovascular disorders, brain trauma, carbon monoxide poisoning, and possibly genetics. However, there are still some Parkinson’s cases that are unkown as to the cause of the disorder.

Knierim, J. (2012). Chapter 6: Disorders of the Motor System. (The University of Texas) Retrieved August 23, 2012, from Neuroscience Online: http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter06.html

Sue, D., Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding Abnormal Behavior (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) and Adolescent Depression

What do you see as the major factors involved in the controversy with the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor used to treat adolescent depression?

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are antidepressant medications used to treat depression. SSRIs work by permitting serotonin to linger longer in the synapse (McGraw-Hill, 2011). However, some research shows that there is an increase of suicidal thoughts in children and adolescents when on SSRIs. In a review of pediatric trials involving 2200 children taking SSRIs, 4% had suicidal thoughts (Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers, 2012). This was two times more than the ones taking placebos. It was also noted that none of the children had attempted suicide. Another side effect of SSRIs is agitation, which is not always a good effect for adolescents. Between the suicidal thoughts and the possible agitation in adolescents, I can see why there is some controversy over prescribing SSRIs to adolescents and even children. Because of the research conducted, the FDA has approved only Fluoxetine (Prozac) for the treatment of children ages 8 to 17. Additionally, Escitalopram (Lexapro) has been approved for adolescents over the age of 12.

Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers. (2012). Retrieved August 18, 2012, from National Institute of Mental Health: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/child-and-adolescent-mental-health/antidepressant-medications-for-children-and-adolescents-information-for-parents-and-caregivers.shtml

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

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Neurotransmitters and Behavior

Identify two to three primary neurotransmitters and discuss their role in behavior.

According to McGraw-Hill (2011), neurotransmitters are the chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite, and sometimes the cell body, of a receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior (McGraw-Hill, 2011). One of the major neurotransmitters is Acetylcholine. This neurotransmitter is involved in our muscle movement and cognitive functioning. Since acetylcholine is associated with memory, diminished levels of this neurotransmitter may be related to Alzheimer’s disease. Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine. Dopamine is involved in movement control, pleasure and reward, attention and learning. A deficiency in dopamine has been linked to Parkinson’s disease. People with Parkinson’s disease have muscle tremors and impaired coordination (movement control). Some researchers have suggested that overproduction of dopamine is related to schizophrenia. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may be caused by inadequate dopamine in the central nervous system (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Researchers are also studying the effects of dopamine in eating disorders. Some research says that low dopamine is related to the desire to eat more and high dopamine is related to a decrease in appetite. A third major neurotransmitter is serotonin. Serotonin is involved in sleeping, eating, mood, pain and depression. Research also concludes that serotonin may be involved in alcoholism and aggression. Serotonin can be linked to mood disorders, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders.

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Sue, D., Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding Abnormal Behavior (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Humans in Biopsychology Research

What are the advantages and disadvantages to using humans in biopsychology research?

When conducting biopsychological research, researchers use both human and non human subjects. Using either of them has its advantages and disadvantages. The greatest advantage of using a human subject is that simply they have human brains. Since the vast majority of research is to discover the link between the human brain and human behavior, this is only logical. Another advantage is that humans can follow the directions presented to them. Humans can report subjective experiences. Human subjects are also usually cheaper than non human subjects. However, using human subjects also has disadvantages. One disadvantage is that human brains are more complex than those of non human subjects. Although there are ethical guidelines for non human subjects, there is some research that can be conducted on them not otherwise acceptable for human subjects.

Resources:

Pinel, J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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Assumptions of a Biopsychology Approach

Explore the major underlying assumptions of a biopsychology approach.

The prefix bio- stands for biological. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior (Pinel, 2009). Together as biopsychology, it means the biological study of behavior. The biopsychology approach views behavior from the perspective of the brain, nervous system and other biological functions (McGraw-Hill, 2011). Within the biopsychology approach, heredity and evolution are studied. Biopsychologists research to discover if behaviors are inherited from our ancestors or if they evolved naturally through mankind. Psychologists look at several biological functions to understand behavior. These include individual nerve cells and how they join, inherited behaviors from parents or other ancestors, functioning of our body in relation to our emotions, etc. Biopsychology is considered one of the neurosciences. Biopsychologists usually stand on the nature side of the nature-nurture debate. This means they usually believe that our genetic makeup and neurosystem is the root of our behaviors.

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Pinel, J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

What is an analysis of variance (ANOVA)? Describe the theory underlying it. In ANOVA, what does F = 1 mean? What are the differences between a two sample t test and ANOVA hypothesis testing?

Analysis of Variance, ANOVA, is the hypothesis testing procedure used when a study has three or more sample groups (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009). When using ANOVA, the researcher analyzes the variances. By analyzing these variances, they are able to conclude what the different means mean. F represents the F ratio. This is the ratio of the between – groups population variance estimate to the within-groups population variance estimate (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009). In ANOVA testing, F=1 is what the null hypothesis equals. If the F ratio is larger than 1, then the null hypothesis is rejected. One of the major differences between a two sample t test and ANOVA testing is the number of samples study. T test has 2 whereas ANOVA has 3 or more.

Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Coups, E. J. (2009). Statistics for psychology (5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

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Correlation

What is correlation? If the correlation between age and physical flexibility is -.68, what does this mean? How would this correlation look on a scatter diagram? What general shape would it have?

Our text defines correlation as the relationship between the scores of two variables (Aron, Aron, & Coups, 2009). Simply, it is a way to measure how associated two variables are. In correlational research, the correlational coefficient usually ranges from +1.0 to -1.0 (McGraw-Hill, 2011). A 0 would represent no correlation. In the example of age and physical flexibility, the correlation is -.68. This is a negative correlation. A negative correlation means that as one variable increases, the other variable decreases (McGraw-Hill, 2011). In this example, I am going to assume that as age (variable 1) increases, physical flexibility (variable 2) decreases. Hence, there is a negative association between the two. On a scatter diagram, data would slope downward from left to right. This is due to the physical flexibility number decreasing as the age number increases.

Aron, A., Aron, E. N., & Coups, E. J. (2009). Statistics for psychology (5th ed). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

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Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it.