Lifespan Development and Personality: Marilyn Monroe

Lifespan Development and Personality: Marilyn Monroe

     Humans develop throughout their entire lifespan, essentially from womb to tomb. Developmental psychologists named this the lifespan perspective (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011) . Within these developments, one’s personality is formed. A person’s personality is made up of behaviors that combined together make an individual unique (Renner, Morrissey, Mae, Feldman,  & Majors, 2011). According to Feist (2006), there are numerous influences in one’s home environment that have effects on a child. Marilyn Monroe, born Norma Jeane Baker, was born into a broken home and her family had a history of mental illness. Marilyn longed for a sense of belonging. Marilyn dreamed of attracting attention and having people look at her (Monroe & Hecht, 2007). Although Marilyn’s charisma and looks captivated America, internally she could not escape her feelings of abandonment and family mental illness history.

Heredity versus Environment

      Marilyn Monroe lived in a childhood filled with poverty. According to Monroe (2007), she lived with approximately nine foster families before she was sixteen years old. She was treated as nothing more than a servant girl by these families. In her book, she recounts having been sexually molested by a boarder of one of these families (Monroe & Hecht, 2007). When young Marilyn tried to tell others about the abuse, she was silenced. These events affected Monroe in her early childhood and into adulthood. In her autobiography, Monroe (2007) spoke of her childhood self, Norma Jeane, by saying “I never lived, I was never loved” (p. 70).

     Monroe very possibly may have inherited mental illness from her family. Both her grandfather and great-grandmother were institutionalized in, and died in, mental hospitals. Monroe‘s uncle committed suicide. As a child, Monroe witnessed her mother have mental episodes and be institutionalized. Even Monroe suffered from depression and lived her final days as a recluse (Britannica, 2011) under the care of a psychiatrist.

In regards to the heredity versus environment discussion, psychologists believe both influences a person’s behavior and personality (Renner, et al, 2011). In accordance with these beliefs, psychologists could deduce that Marilyn’s personality was shaped by a combination of heredity as well as environment.

Family Issues and Support Systems

     Marilyn never knew her birth father. Her birth certificate listed one man while her mother claimed another was the father (Monroe & Hecht, 2007). Marilyn did not know her older siblings until she was eighteen years old (Johnson, 1994). A young Marilyn was passed around to foster families that needed the five dollars a week she came with. Marilyn became close to her mother’s best friend, who she called Aunt Grace. It was Grace that told Marilyn that she would grow up to be a beautiful girl (Monroe & Hecht, 2007). This simple compliment made a young Marilyn happy.

     When Marilyn was sixteen years old, just two years away from adulthood, she was to become a ward of the state again. Rather than entering the foster care system again, Marilyn married a neighborhood boy. In her autobiography, Monroe called her marriage simply a friendship with marital privileges. The marriage lasted four years.

     In one of Monroe’s relationships, she came to the conclusion that she was not smart enough for the world. She decided to enroll at the University of Southern California and take art courses. After a few weeks, she decided to study Freud and other psychologists (Monroe & Hecht, 2007). Eventually, school combined with training for her acting career became too much for Marilyn. She quit college but intended to return at a later time.

     In 1954, Marilyn married her second husband, Joe DiMaggio. Although their marriage lasted barely a year, Marilyn depended on DiMaggio for some time before her death. DiMaggio, Aunt Grace and former agent Johnny Hyde were her greatest support systems. Each of the three helped Marilyn the best they could.

Cognitive Social Theory versus Biological Theory

     Cognitive social theory relies on the environment to explain a person’s behavior whereas biological theory states personality traits are inherited. Cognitive social theory ignores the internal processes to explain behavior. Cognitive social theory focuses on a person’s thoughts, feelings, expectations, and values as well as their observations of other’s behavior. Cognitive social theory stresses determinism, or the view that behavior is directed and caused by factors that one has no control over (Renner, et al, 2011). Marilyn centered her behavior around incidents that happened in her life. When Marilyn felt unloved as a young child, she decided one day attention would be on her (Monroe & Hecht, 2007). When she felt intellectually inferior, she enrolled in college. Marilyn did things to fit the mold of her environment, not the mold of herself internally.

     Alternately, biological theory suggests that a person’s inherited genes determine personality. Like cognitive social theory, biological theory also focuses on determinism. Biological theory emphasizes stability in personality traits whereas cognitive social theory emphasizes flexible personality traits (Renner, et al, 2011). Both theories ignore the conscious and unconscious of a person.

 Cognitive Social Theory and Monroe

     The cognitive social theory best describes Monroe’s behavior because it involves environment including thoughts, feelings, expectations, values and observations. Cognitive social theory involves self – efficacy and self – esteem. Self – efficacy is the belief in one’s personal capabilities (Renner, et al, 2011). Monroe found faults in herself; however she believed that she was capable of being better. Researchers say that those with high self – efficacy have higher aspirations and persistence than those with low self – efficacy (Renner, et al, 2011). Self – esteem is how one sees them self. Self – esteem can be positive or negative. Monroe had both positive and negative self – esteem. She used this to succeed in her career, in which she had positive self – esteem. However, in her personal relationships, it seems she had negative self – esteem.

 Conclusion

     Personality psychology has several different theories (Renner, et al, 2011). Each theory brings a different meaning to one’s personality, such as heredity in the biological perspective and the response to environment in the cognitive social perspective. Each theory alone may not explain a person’s personality. However, these theories together may help in understanding a person. In order to understand lifespan development, one must examine all components that contribute to the personality.

References

Feist, G. (2006). How Development and Personality Influence Scientific Thought, Interest, and Achievement. Review of General Psychology, 10(2), 163-182. doi:10.1037/1089-2680.10.2.163

Johnson, M. (1994). My sister Marilyn Monroe. Life, 17(5), 46.

Monroe, Marilyn. (2011). Britannica Biographies, 1.

Monroe, M., & Hecht, B. (2007). My Story. Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Publishing.

Renner, T., Morrissey, J., Mae, L., Feldman, R., & Majors, M. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Sensation, Perception, and Attention

A paper written in collaboration of Daniel Scroggs, Crystal Swarmer, Elizabeth Lopez, and Stephanie Sexton.

Sensation, Perception, and Attention Paper

Sensation, perception, and attention are important in order to effectively understand and learn in any aspect of life. It is especially important when working in an online team. In order to develop a better understanding of how sensation, perception, and attention affect the team, we spoke about our individual threshold for auditory stimuli, dichotic listening, and dividing our attention when working on assignments. In addition, we spoke about different problems that may hinder our team while communicating, along with problems that may affect work in our individual environments. In order to avoid developing problems within the team, we have developed a set a guidelines that will allow the team to work effectively. Learning the differences of sensation, perception, attention each team member holds will allow the entire team to construct assignments with ease, along with developing a better sense of each team member. 

Individual Environmental Preference

The type of environment that allows each team member to work with ease on assignments depends on the team member preference. During our discussion, we spoke about each team members preferred working environment. Stephanie, Crystal, and Elizabeth prefer to work in an environment with very little auditory stimuli. They tend to become distracted easily. However, Dan prefers to work with low levels of auditory stimuli. Low levels of auditory stimuli in Dan’s  working environment allow him to work and collaborate with team members effectively. The different auditory stimuli each team member prefers may be a result of the environments that are most comforting to them. For instance, if Stephanie, Crystal, and Elizabeth are normally in a quite setting, studying or collaborating with team members would be more successful in a quite setting. If Dan is more comfortable with a low level of auditory stimuli, then incorporating low levels of auditory stimuli into his working environment would be beneficial. Each team member prefers to work with different factors present in their working environment. In fact, Dan suggests background noises in his home; while he is working because it has been his norm for so long, it is somewhat necessary to his daily functioning. In order to allow the team to create assignments easily and appropriately, each team member should create their preferred working environment when meeting with team members, and while working on assignments.

Individual Threshold For Auditory Stimuli

Each team member has a different threshold for auditory stimuli. Stephanie and Dan are able to hear small noises in a quiet room. For example, if the faucet were dripping down the hall, Stephanie and Dan would be tortured by the noise until they turned the faucet off. Crystal’s threshold for auditory stimuli is different. She can only hear certain decibels of sound. If someone talks to her below that level, she will not be able to hear what they are saying. Elizabeth also has a high threshold for auditory stimuli. Understanding each team member’s threshold for auditory stimuli allows the team member to create an environment at home the will benefit the team.  

Dichotic Listening

The discovery of the dichotic listening test was the result of “Broadbent want[ing] to see how people were able to focus their attention (selectively attend), and to do this he deliberately overloaded them with stimuli - they had too many signals, too much information to process at the same time” (McLeod, 2008). During dichotic listening, a person is able to focus their attention on one person as they are talking and drowned out the conversations of the people surrounding them.  This theory led to the development of the dichotic listening task. “Results from this research led Broadbent to produce his 'filter' model of how selective attention operates” (McLeod, 2008). In this model, Broadbent points out that all input is filtered “based on physical characteristics” (McLeod, 2008).  Therefore, if a person is listening to a conversation they are interested in or required to listen to, their brains will focus on that particular information and drowned out other pieces of information. Stephanie and Dan are able to perform this task. However, Crystal and Elizabeth are unable to perform this task.

The Division of Attention

Dividing attention facilitates our learning experience as a whole.  Dividing the assignments has worked well for several reasons. More material can be covered in less time, which will free up some people to help other team members that may need help. In addition,  if each team member concentrates on one thing, the team is able to stay focused and get the assignment finished by the due date. The leadership role may change depending on the assignment. Each team member is able to contribute different, yet creative information. Therefore, if we are studying a topic that one team member may understand a little better, that team member is able to lead the other members to create the assignment.  Because some members need to wait until the kids go to bed, and some team members prefer to work on assignments during the week, dividing assignments evenly amongst the team aids in the success of the team. Being on  a team is all about team work, and more success  is found within  teams that divide and conquer. For instance, if members are able to perform the tasks that are given to them, the team as whole will be successful.  

Problems in Environmental Settings

Problems include any distractions, while at home working on assignments or collaborating with team members, or misunderstanding any conversations being posting online. For instance, Stephanie, Crystal, and Elizabeth are unable to work on assignments or collaborate with team members if there is too much noise in a room. However, Dan prefers to have auditory stimuli while he is working. Other problems may result from misunderstanding information or not communicating information properly. For instance, the use of all caps should not be used because this action could be misunderstood and perceived as disrespectful. In order to avoid problems, team members should study and communicate with other team members in their preferred working environments. In addition, team members should double check the information they are posting in order to make sure their post will not be read the wrong way. In addition, paying attention to time management will ensure the success of the team. Following these basic guidelines will allow the team to work effectively on assignments and create creative papers to submit to the instructor. 

Conclusion

Being in an online team requires each member to accommodate other members of the team. Understanding individual environmental preferences allows each team member to create this environment while communicating and studying in order to produce the perfect assignment. In addition, understanding each team member’s threshold for auditory stimuli allows the team to create the proper learning environment for our team. Understanding each member ability to perform dichotic listening also helps create the proper learning environment for our team. Collaborating with team member has led to the discovery of distributing assignments to individual team member in order to cover more information in a short period. Because we were able to discuss our different preferences in learning environments, the team has developed guidelines in order to accommodate each members needs. These guidelines consist of creating the prefer learning environment at home, being respectful, double checking information before submitting it, and paying close attention to time management. If we are able to follow these guidelines, the team will be successful.

References

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

McLeod, S. A. (2008). Simply Psychology; Retrieved: March 5, 2012, from http://www.simplypsychology.org/attention-models.html

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Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Impact on Personal Success

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Impact on Personal Success

            Does a person have a single intelligence or various intelligences? This was the question psychologist Howard Gardner wanted to answer. Prior to Gardner, intelligence tests only measured intellectual abilities in reference to learning. Gardner wanted to know why people were smart rather than how smart he or she was. Gardner viewed intelligence as ability or abilities used to solve problems in a particular culture (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). The result of his research was the Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

The Eight Intelligences

            Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences included a list of eight intelligences. Gardner believed that every person had each of these intelligences in some degree. Because of this, we each learn in different ways (Santrock, 2010). The first of these was linguistic, or the ability to use language in thinking and communication. The logical/mathematical intelligence included skills in problem solving and scientific thinking. The spatial intelligence included skills with spatial configuration. Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence includes the ability to learn and perform physical movements. The musical intelligence includes sensitivity and understanding of aspects of music including pitch and rhythm. Interpersonal intelligence includes skills in relating to others whereas intrapersonal intelligence involves understanding the self. Naturalistic intelligence involves understanding nature and the environment. While all eight have an impact on personal success, this paper will focus on only three of the intelligences: spatial, intrapersonal and interpersonal.

 Three Ingredients to Personal Success

Spatial Intelligence

            Gardner’s spatial intelligence involved the ability to think three-dimensionally (Santrock, 2010). Also key to spatial intelligence is transforming mental images into a three – dimensional image (Grow, 1990). This intelligence goes beyond being just visual. It includes abstract and analytical abilities. For example, when an architect is designing a building they are able to see it as the finished product not as the lines we see on the paper. Some professions with high spatial intelligence are architects, artists, contractors, carpenters, engineers, and designers.

            Spatial intelligence can help with personal success, especially if one is in one of the above listed professions. Spatial intelligence helps a person see things as images instead of just a one – dimensional or two – dimensional object. When reading a map, a person with high spatial intelligence sees the roads, buildings, and other objects noted on the map as they truly are. People with low spatial intelligence see it just as it’s drawn – lines and symbols.

Interpersonal Intelligence

            Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to understand and interact effectively with others (Santrock, 2010). People with high interpersonal intelligence are able to perceive and understand the moods, characteristics, intentions, temperaments, motivations, and feelings of other people. Occupations that usually have high interpersonal intelligence are teachers, mental health professionals such as therapists and counselors, political leaders and religious leaders. These occupations have one thing in common: these occupations usually want to help others and/or lead. This involves having good relations with others.

            High levels of interpersonal intelligence can result in a person’s personal success. Communication is vital in many occupations. Persons with high interpersonal intelligence will thrive in these occupations as they have great communication skills. Since, a person with interpersonal intelligence can easily understand others, it is easy for him or her to embrace the problems and offer help. Those with interpersonal intelligence are able to help others with consideration to their distinctions in mind. These people can go on to become successful leaders, politicians, and counselors.

Intrapersonal Intelligence

            Interpersonal intelligence is closely related to intrapersonal intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to understand oneself (Santrock, 2010). In fact, some researchers believe that a person must be able to understand others in order to understand the self and vice versa (Nolene, 2003). People with intrapersonal intelligence are imaginative, original, patient, disciplined, and motivated. These people usually have a high self – respect. This intelligence is usually derived from internal resources. Occupations that thrive with this intelligence are theologians and psychologists.

            Intrapersonal intelligence involves having an understanding of one’s own dreams, goals, strengths, limitations, moods, anxieties, desires, and motivations. People with intrapersonal intelligence make decisions based on what is best for them and they have a strong sense of identity. People with intrapersonal intelligence usually want answers to deeper questions that relate to meaning and purpose. They can help others by understanding one’s self.

Conclusion

            In the beginning, psychologists could not define the word intelligence (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Psychologists have researched and refined intelligence as it relates to the world. Before Gardner, intelligence referred to specifically how smart a person was in academics. Gardner helped to increase the understanding of intelligence by developing his Theory of Multiple Intelligences. With his theory, he proved that people are intelligent in many different areas, not just academically. Gardner was one of the psychologists that began to prove that intelligence was multifaceted, functional and culturally defined (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Intelligence is multifaceted meaning that it can be expressed in many different areas. Intelligence is functional, as it directed towards a goal. Intelligence is culturally defined as its definition varies from one culture to the next. Intelligence can now be defined as the application of cognitive skills and knowledge to learn, solve problems, and reach results based on the individual and culture (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences is multifaceted, functional and cultural. The intelligences help people reach their goals; ultimately allowing him or her to obtain personal success.

References

Grow, G. (1990). Retrieved March 6, 2012, from Writing and multiple intelligences. Presentation given at

the annual meeting of the Association for Educators in Journalism and Mass Communication.

ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 406 643: http://www.longleaf.net/ggrow

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Nolene, J. L. (2003). MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES IN THE CLASSROOM. Education, 124(1) , 115-119.

Santrock, J. W. (2010). Children. New York: The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it. 

Phobias and Addictions

Phobias and Addictions

            “Learning is any enduring change in the way an organism responds based on its experience.” (Kowalski & Westen, 2011, p. 164). According to our text, phobias and addictions are two emotional difficulties that can develop through learning (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Learning can take place through various different methods. Classical and operant conditioning are two common learning methods developed by Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner, respectively. The results of classical and operant conditioning can contribute to an individual’s ability to thrive and function; however, phobias and addictions can also develop as a result.

Phobias and Classical Conditioning

            Phobias are a persistent, irrational fear of a specific object, activity or situation that leads to a compelling desire to avoid it. This desire can interfere with a person’s ability to work, socialize, or go about his or her daily routine. Researchers have different theories on the cause of phobias. Some theories conclude that phobias are the result of classical conditioning (Coelho & Purkis, 2009).

            Phobias develop through classical conditioning when one stimulus is paired with another resulting in a different response (Dingfelder, 2005). In 1920, John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted a landmark study involving classical conditioning. In this study, they concluded that emotional responses could be conditioned, or learned (Little Albert). First, they frightened their subject, Little Albert, by making a loud noise behind him. Then, through many tests, they associated the noise to a white rat. Little Albert had become conditioned to be afraid of the rat even without the noise. Other phobias can be conditioned the same way. For example, a young child receives a shot at the doctor’s office and feels pain when injected with the needle. Over time, the child associates needles with pain and begins to cry at the sight of a needle. The child has been conditioned to have a phobia of needle.

Addictions and Operant Conditioning

            The American Society of Addiction Medicine defines addiction as “a primary chronic disease of brain reward, motivation, memory and related circuitry” (Definition of Addiction). There are many types of addictions such as gambling, substances, pornography, food and sex. Addictions can become so strong to the point they can also interfere with a person’s normal life. The basis behind operant conditioning is that behavior is controlled by its consequences (Kowalski & Westen, 2011).

            An addiction develops when a behavior is met with reinforcement. If the reinforcement is positive to the person, the behavior becomes more frequent. This satisfies the brain reward portion of the addiction definition. An example of addiction developed by operant conditioning is alcoholism. A person drinks alcohol (behavior) and begins to feel a “high” (reinforcement). The person begins to drink to feel the “high”. This person has become addicted to alcohol through operant conditioning. The drive the person wanted (the “high”) is satisfied and he or she feels fulfilled as explained in Theory of Addiction (West, 2006, p. 98).

Distinguishing Between Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

            Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are two major theories of behavior. While both have some similarities such as being methods to modify behavior and the use of extinction, they also have differences. Classical conditioning involves a natural stimulus paired with a response. In classical conditioning, a previously neutral response creates the response even without the presence of the natural stimulus. Operant conditioning involves an association between a behavior and its consequence. Classical conditioning places a neutral signal before a reflex whereas operant conditioning applies the reinforcement or punishment after a behavior. Classical conditioning focuses on involuntary behaviors whereas operant conditioning focuses on voluntary behaviors. While the two are very different, they are both important in the learning process.

Extinction in Classical and Operant Conditioning

            Extinction is the gradual weakening of a conditioned response that results in the behavior decreasing or disappearing. Phobias and addictions are two difficulties that can affect general living. Therefore, therapy should involve eliminating these from the person’s mind. While not all phobias are developed through classical conditioning, those that are can be eliminated by extinction. In classical conditioning, extinction refers to the process by which a conditioned response is weakened by the presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). In the example of Little Albert, his phobia of the white rat could be decreased by the presentation of the loud noise without the white rat being presented.

            Addictions developed through operant conditioning can also be eliminated by extinction (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Extinction happens when the reward is no longer satisfying. In the alcoholism example, once the alcohol no longer provides the “high” feeling desired, the person will no longer drink and the behavior will be extinguished. Major addictions may need more therapy than just basic extinction.  Other behavioral therapy methods may be used to solicit the extinction of addiction.

 Conclusion

            There are many emotional difficulties a person may experience. Two that behavioral researchers have studied are phobias and addictions. Both of these can affect a person’s life in very negative manners. Classical and operant conditioning are two methods in which learning can occur. Some researchers believe that phobias can be developed through classical conditioning and addictions can be developed by operant conditioning. Just as phobias and addictions can be caused by these methods, extinction can help reverse them.

References

Coelho, C., & Purkis, H. (2009). The origins of specific phobias: Influential theories and current perspectives. Review Of General Psychology, 13(4) , 335-348.

Definition of Addiction. (n.d.). Retrieved February 27, 2012, from American Society of Addiction Medicine: http://www.asam.org/research-treatment/definition-of-addiction

Dingfelder, S. (2005). Distinguishing between phobias. Monitor on Psychology, 36(7), , 98.

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Little Albert. (n.d.). Retrieved February 27, 2012, from Sweet Briar College Department of Psychology: http://www.psychology.sbc.edu/Little%20Albert.htm

West, R. (2006). Theory of Addiction. Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, Inc.

Plagiarism:

Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it. 

Fundamentals of Psychology

Fundamentals of Psychology

       The brain is a complex structure. Psychology is an attempt to study and better understand the brain in relation to one’s behavior. The science of psychology has evolved through time. Researchers have developed “schools,” or perspectives, of psychology. These include structuralism, functionalism, behaviorism, psychoanalysis, humanistic, and cognitive. Researchers have also used a biological - based view to understand psychology called evolutionary psychology.

Structuralism

      Structuralism was considered the first school of psychology. Edward B. Titchener developed structuralism, basing it upon Wilhelm Wundt’s work in psychology. One of structuralism’s main points was that it focused on internal processes such as thoughts or feelings. Structuralism focused on the components of mental processes rather than the process itself. Another point of structuralism is that those who studied it believed that the mind and body were distinct from one another; the two were not to act upon one another (Pillsbury, 1934). Titchener believed that experiences could be broken down into smaller components. Structuralism used introspection in its research. Introspection is where subjects verbally reported what they were thinking at the moment (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). This is the process of looking in on one’s mind. Structuralism influenced the development of experimental psychology.

Functionalism

      Structuralism had its criticisms. From those criticisms, functionalism was formed. Functionalism attempted to explain mental processes into a more systematic manner by relating them to a physiological process (Carr, 1930). Functionalists focused on the whole situation rather than the smaller components (Pillsbury, 1934). Functionalists also believed that consciousness served a function (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Functionalism focused more on explaining the mind whereas structuralism focused on describing the mind. Functionalism influenced behaviorism and applied psychology as well as the educational system.

Behaviorism

         John Watson was influential in the development of behaviorism. Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner were also important in behaviorism. Pavlov’s experiments in classical conditioning and Skinner’s experiments in operant conditioning played a role in supporting the beliefs of behaviorism. In behaviorism, the focus is the relationship between external events and observable behaviors (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). Observable behavior is the main factor in which behaviorism is based upon. Another belief is that behaviors are acquired through learning. Watson’s stance was that experimental observation was the method by which behavior could be studied. Behaviorists thought behavior could be understood without reference to thoughts or feelings. In fact, Watson did not believe that mental life existed in the same manner as his predecessor’s believed (Moore, 2011).

Psychoanalysis

         Sigmund Freud developed psychoanalysis. Psychoanalysis has three basic components to its beliefs. First, a person’s thoughts and feelings determine his or her actions. Second, many thoughts and feelings occur in a person’s unconscious mind. Third, a person’s conscious thoughts may conflict with his or her unconscious thoughts.  Freud believed that a person has unconscious thoughts that are the basis for a person’s conscious thoughts. Freud also believed that the human mind was composed of three elements. These are the id, ego and superego (Renner, Morrissey, Mae, Feldman, & Majors, 2011). The id is a person’s unconscious that works to satisfy a person’s basic needs and desires. The superego is the ideals a person has acquired from external sources. The superego works to suppress the urges of the id and to make the ego behave morally. The ego mediates the demands of the id, superego and reality. The ego also prevents a person from acting on the urges of the id and works to achieve balance between moral standards and the idealistic standards of the superego.

Humanistic Psychology

         Humanistic psychology emphasizes the role of the individual rather than unconscious thought. Humanistic psychologists believe that people are innately good. They believe that a person’s mental problems result from a deviation from the natural tendency of being good. A humanistic psychologist focuses on an individual’s potential as well as his or her growth and self-actualization (Renner, Morrissey, Mae, Feldman, & Majors, 2011). Unlike the previous schools of psychology, the humanistic approach considers environmental factors as well as internal thoughts. Even today humanistic psychology influences therapy, education and healthcare.

Cognitive Psychology

Cognitive psychology studies mental processes. This includes how people think, perceive, remember and learn. Cognitive psychologists study memory and decision making. Cognitive psychologists, like behaviorists, believe that organisms respond to the environment and have predictable output (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). However, unlike behaviorism, cognitive psychology focuses on both observable behaviors and internal mental states. Unlike psychoanalysis, cognitive psychology uses research methods. Cognitive psychology is experimental in nature. Cognitive psychologists use experimental procedures to study mental processes at work (Kowalski & Westen, 2011).

Evoultionary Psychology

     Evolutionary psychology focuses on biologically – based mechanisms that evolved in a species. Evolutionary psychologists believe that many human behavior tendencies evolved through time (Biological Foundations of Behavior: Evolution, Genetics, and The Brain). Neurons are the basic units of the nervous system. Neurons help coordinate functions of the body through electrical and chemical communication (Kowalski & Westen, 2011). There are three types of neurons: sensory, motor, and interneuron. Evolutionary psychologists believe these units contribute to the way a person responds through mental process.

Conclusion

Psychology has evolved and changed over time. According to many of the founders of psychology, many factors contribute to the way a person’s brain works. Whether it is biological in origin as the evolutionary psychologists believe or if mental processes are caused by a person’s unconscious as psychoanalysis psychologists believe, a person’s brain is a complex structure.

References

Biological Foundations of Behavior: Evolution, Genetics, and The Brain. (n.d.). Retrieved February 20,                          2012, from McGraw-Hill Higher Education: http://highered.mcgraw-  hill.com/sites/0072563303/student_view0/chapter3/

Carr, H. (1930). Psychologies of 1930. Clark University Press.

Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2011). Psychology (6th ed.). John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Moore, J. J. (2011). BEHAVIORISM. Psychological Record, 61(3) , 449-464.

Pillsbury, W. B. (1934). The fundamentals of psychology (3rd ed.) . MacMillan Co.

Renner, T., Morrissey, J., Mae, L., Feldman, R., & Majors, M. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: The McGraw - Hill Companies, Inc.

Plagiarism:

Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it. 

Personal Responsibility and College Success

            Michael Korda, editor-in-chief of Simon & Schuster once said "Success on any major scale requires you to accept responsibility . . . . In the final analysis, the one quality that all successful people have is the ability to take on responsibility" (Quotes on Responsibility). Personal responsibility can be defined as taking responsibility for one’s actions, including accepting the consequences of those actions. Responsibility is important to all learning and developing (Turning Teaching Into Learning: The Role of Student Responsibility in the Collegiate Experience ). Many factors contribute to a person’s eventual success in college. However, the student has a personal responsibility for his or her success. While families and instructors have some effect on a person’s success, each individual is personally responsible in his or her achievement in college.          
             One way to look at personal responsibility is to see it as responding wisely to opportunities and challenges (Downing, 2011). Persons with personal responsibility do not wait for other things, such as people or luck, to make choices for them. An important part of personal responsibility is choice. Accepting personal responsibility in one’s life means he or she takes control of the decisions in his or her life. One example is studying for a test. A student who has assumed personal responsibility will create a time schedule and study for the upcoming test. A student who has not accepted personal responsibility will not study for the test. That student will hope that he or she will be lucky and still get a good grade. In a person’s life, he or she can be one of two things when it comes to personal responsibility. A person can be either a “creator” or a “victim.” A creator accepts that things are not working one way and will change them to gain success. A victim will not accept when things are not working and will continue doing the same things. A victim will be the person making excuses for his or her failures. Without personal responsibility, a person’s life would be shaped by outside factors rather than internal factors, including the desire to succeed.

            When a person enters adulthood, he or she has more personal responsibility in his or her life. With personal responsibility comes the freedom to make one’s own choices. The choices made affect a person’s goals. With this in mind, one can conclude that the choices a person makes will affect his or her success in college, whether negatively or positively.  Some students use excuses to advert the responsibility of his or her failures from them. Excuses are self-serving explanations, or accounts (Schlenker, Pontari, & Christopher, 2001). According to some books and journals, people should be taught when they fail to shift responsibility from themselves to independent factors they cannot control. By using excuses, personal responsibility is reduced. When personal responsibility is reduced, performance is lowered. When entering college, the student has a responsibility to study, do his or her own work and maintain satisfactory grades. These responsibilities are critical for college success; therefore a student should take personal responsibility for them. As George Washington Carver said, “Ninety-nine percent of all failures come from people who have a habit of making excuses” (Quotes on Responsibility).

        Families and instructors play a minor role in a student’s success in college. Parents, siblings, spouses, and other family members want to see the student succeed. They usually will do what they can to help the student in his or her academics. This can include helping them study, ensuring they have the quietness and space to study, or paying for school or supplies. According to one article, the level of a parent’s education plays a role in a student’s college success (Goodman, et al., 2011). It is also believed that a student’s interaction with instructors and other students also plays a minor role in a student’s success (Goodman, et al., 2011).  A thorough instructor who is available to his or her students is more likely a better influence on a student’s success than an instructor who teaches the bare minimum. The University of Alabama Center for Academic Success webpage also believes that personal responsibility and not others in a student’s life is the key to college success. The university’s webpage says friends, family, and faculty may advise a student but the final decision to accept the responsibility is the student’s choice (Causes of Failure in College ). Although families and instructors can help a student succeed, the ultimate responsibility falls on the student to study and do his or her work.

         The most important reason each individual is personally responsible in his or her achievement in college is motivation to succeed. Motivation can be defined as the general desire or willingness of someone to do something. According to the journal article, A Study of University Students’ Motivation and Its Relationship with Their Academic Performance, “student motivation is the element that leads student’ attitudes towards the learning process” (Afzal, Ali, Khan, & Hamid, 2010, p. 81). Two deans of Elmhurst College say that student motivation is the difference between students making his or her education a priority or not (Crone & MacKay, 2007). According to them, students must choose to focus their time and energy into college to be motivated.  There are different types of motivators. One type is intrinsic, or motivation from the inside. Intrinsic motivation is a major component to human nature (Goodman, et al., 2011). People with high intrinsic motivation usually have an interest and enjoyment in the task. They also usually are competent and self-determined. An example of an intrinsic motivator is the personal satisfaction of achieving a goal. The second type of motivator is extrinsic, or motivation from the outside. An example of an extrinsic motivator is a promotion at work upon completing a degree. Both of these motivators can drive a person to succeed in college. Both types of motivators can influence a student to take personal responsibility for his or her success.

        In conclusion, although families and instructors have some effect on a student’s success, each individual is personally responsible in his or her achievement in college for two main reasons. First, no one else can be responsible for a person’s success in college except him or her. Second and most important, is because of individual motivation to succeed. Personal motivation and responsibility are the two main driving forces behind a student’s desire to succeed.

 Works Cited

Afzal, H., Ali, I., Khan, M., & Hamid, K. (2010). A Study of University Students' Motivation and Its Relationship with Their Academic Performance. International Journal Of Business & Management, 5(4) , 80-88.

Causes of Failure in College . (n.d.). Retrieved January 30, 2012, from The University of Alabama : http://www.ctl.ua.edu/CTLStudyAids/StudySkillsFlyers/GeneralTips/causesoffailure.htm

Crone, I., & MacKay, K. (2007). Motivating Today's College Students. Peer Review, 9(1) , 18-21.

Downing, S. (2011). On Course: Strategies for Creating Success in College and in Life. Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

Goodman, S., Keresztesi, M., Mamdani, F., Mokgatle, D., Musariri, M., Pires, J., et al. (2011). An investigation of the relationship between students' motivation and academic performance as mediated by effort. South African Journal Of Psychology, 41(3) , 373-385.

Quotes on Responsibility. (n.d.). Retrieved February 3, 2012, from Leadership Now: http://www.leadershipnow.com/responsibilityquotes.html

Schlenker, B. R., Pontari, B. A., & Christopher, A. N. (2001). Excuses and Character: Personal and Social Implications of Excuses. Personality & Social Psychology Review (Lawrence Erlbaum Associates), 5(1) , 15-32.

Turning Teaching Into Learning: The Role of Student Responsibility in the Collegiate Experience . (n.d.). Retrieved February 11, 2012, from The National Teaching and Learning Forum: http://www.ntlf.com/html/lib/bib/93-8dig.htm

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Changing Schools: From TCC to UoP

I officially begin classes at the University of Phoenix in the Bachelor's of Psychology program. With all my transfer credits, it places me at 50% complete with my degree. Cannot wait to see what this adventure has in store for me.





**EDIT: I can say that TCC never prepared me for APA writing. What I could get by with there, isn't acceptable at Phoenix. **