Theoretical Perspectives: Dispositional Theories

Theoretical Perspectives: Dispositional Theories

There are many different theories in explaining personality. Dispositional theories explain the relationship between traits and personality. Two of the most well known dispositional theories are Allport’s Psychology of the Individual Theory and Trait and Factor Theories. Gordon Allport, Hans Eysenck, Robert McCrae, and Paul Costa Jr are the more common of the dispositional theorists. The assumptions vary from those of the other theorists. However, just as the other theories, the dispositional theories provide a basis for the study of personality.

Assumptions

Allport's Psychology of the Individual Theory

Gordon Allport developed the Psychology of the Individual Theory. The basis of this theory was the “uniqueness, variety, and continuity of personal growth” (Bertocci, 1940, p.501). Allport accepted some beliefs from other theorists; however he also believed that no one theorist could completely explain personality. While previous theorists emphasized the unconscious, Allport focused more on the conscious. An important assumption of Allport’s theory is that of the psychologically mature personality. Within this personality, there is proactive behavior. Proactive behavior includes the belief that one’s behavior is of conscious acting rather than unconscious. Allport further defined the psychologically mature personality as having a relatively trauma free childhood (Feist & Feist, 2009). Another assumption of this theory is the structure of personality. His primary unit of personality was dispositions. Allport compared personal dispositions to common traits. Common traits are held commonly by a group of people such as a culture; whereas, a personal disposition is unique to the individual. Allport placed dispositions into levels. The highest level is cardinal dispositions. This level is so dominating that it cannot be hidden from others (Feist & Feist, 2009). However, it is Allport’s belief that most people do not have this level of disposition. The next level is central disposition. This level is the five to ten traits that an individual’s life focuses around. The final level of dispositions is secondary. An individual may have many of these dispositions. However, they are not central to an individual. Allport also discussed proprium. Proprium is the concept that individuals see certain characteristics as his or her own and are central and important (Feist & Feist, 2009). However, proprium does not define the whole personality.

Trait and Factor Theories

Trait and Factor Theories emphasize the use of a factor analysis. This method is a mathematical procedure used to reduce a large number of variables to a few (Feist & Feist, 2009). Trait and Factor theorists use this method in order to reduce a large number of traits down to a few to define an individual’s personality. Factors may be unipolar or bipolar. Examples of unipolar traits are height, weight, and intelligence. Examples of bipolar traits are introversion versus extraversion and liberalism versus conservatism. Hans Eysenck rejected psychoanalysis but accepted behaviorism (Rose, 2010). This tended to show through his theory. He devised four criteria for identifying factors. First, the evidence for the factor’s existence should be reliable and replicable. Second, the factor must fit an established genetic model (Feist & Feist, 2009). Third, the factor should make sense from a theoretical view. Last, the factor should be socially relevant. Eysenck also developed the Hierarchy of Behavior Organization. The lowest level is specific behaviors or thoughts. These may be characteristic of the individual. However, they may also be uncharacteristic of the individual. The next level is habitual behaviors and thoughts. These occur under similar situations. The third level is traits. Traits develop from several habitual responses (Feist & Feist, 2009). The fourth level is types, also called superfactors. Types are comprised of several interrelated traits. Eysenck also developed the Dimensions of Personality or the Giant Three. These were the superfactors in Eysenck’s hierarchy. Eysenck’s dimensions were extraversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Eysenck acknowledged that other dimensions could be added later. Based upon his dimensions, Eysenck developed four personality inventories to measure these superfactors. The first was the Maudsley Personality Inventory (MPI). However, the MPI only measured extraversion and neuroticism. Eysenck then developed the Eysenck Personality Inventory (EPI). This inventory assessed extraversion and neuroticism independently where the MPI did not. A third inventory was developed called the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ).This inventory included the psychoticism factor. The fourth inventory was called the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire – Revised which addressed the criticisms of the EPQ. McCrae and Costa researched further than the Giant Three. They developed the Big Five. McCrae and Costa discovered extraversion and neuroticism just as Eysenck had. They also discovered openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness as superfactors.    

Strengths and Limitations

Allport's Psychology of the Individual Theory

All theories have strengths and limitations. One criticism of Allport’s theory is that it was not based on scientific investigations. Instead his theory was based more on speculation (Feist & Feist, 2009). However, Allport’s writings do constitute the theory. His writings did generate hypotheses although unhealthy individuals were not covered. Allport’s writings were a good basis for future personality theorists. Allport’s theory generated research primarily in religion, values, and prejudice. Some of Allport’s findings are not able to be verified or falsified. When it comes to organization of theory, some of known human personality cannot be integrated into the theory (Feist & Feist, 2009). Although Allport acknowledged the unconscious, his theories did not explain behaviors caused by the unconscious. Allport’s theory serves as a good stepping stone for practitioners to use.

Trait and Factor Theories

Trait and Factor theorists organize personality into classifications (Feist & Feist, 2009). These theories have generated a significant amount of research. One important outcome of research is that the Big Five of personality can be found in different cultures thus aiding in the validity of the theory. Eysenck’s research results have not been replicated by other researchers (Feist & Feist, 2009). Some of McCrae and Costa’s findings can be falsified. The Trait and Factor Theories provide a good framework for the organization of human personality. There has been much debate in the consistency of these theories. For example, Eysenck developed the Giant Three and McCrae and Costa developed the Big Five. These are two closely related theories with very noticeable differences. However, the method of factor analysis is precise  (Feist & Feist, 2009). The Trait and Factor Theories are comprehensive and structured. However, they are not useful to individuals such as parents, teachers, and counselors. These theories are most useful for researchers. 

Conclusion

While many other theories tended to account for the unconscious, the dispositional theories emphasized the conscious. While other theories focused on the behaviors, dispositional theories focused on the individual. Gordon Allport used personal dispositions as the unit of personality. The Trait and Factor theorists used traits as the unit of personality. These theorists attempted to prove the relationship between unique characteristics and behavior in individuals. These theories have strengths and weaknesses. These strengths and weaknesses make these theories as valid as any other theory. While these theories do have some flaws, they are sound beginnings for personality research and theory. 

References

Bertocci, P. A. (1940). A critique of G.W. Allport's theory of motivation. Psychological Review, 47(6), 501-532. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/614266456?accountid=35812

Feist, J., & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of Personality (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Rose, S. (2010). Hans Eysenck's controversial career. The Lancet, 376(9739), 407-408. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S014067361061207X

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Theoretical Perspectives: Humanistic

Theoretical Perspectives: Humanistic

One of the perspectives in psychology is the humanistic perspective. The humanistic perspective states that a person has an innate goodness. A person also has the desire to achieve higher levels of potential. Humanistic theorists believe the core of personality is made up of the conscious motivation to improve as well as the individual’s unique impulses. Two of the most popular humanistic theories are the Holistic – Dynamic Theory created by Abraham Maslow and the Person – Centered Theory created by Carl Rogers. These theories have been used to understand personality. These theories have also been criticized on their effectiveness and validity.

Assumptions

The assumptions of the humanistic perspective are different than those of the psychodynamic perspective. The psychodynamic perspective focuses on the unconscious; whereas, the humanistic perspective focuses on the conscious. The primary assumption of the humanistic theories is that behavior is motivated by needs, primarily self – actualization. Maslow’s theory proposes the Hierarchy of Needs as the path to self – actualization. Rogers’ theory proposes the actualization tendency as the path to self – actualization. While Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs motivate a person towards a reduction of deficiency, self – actualization is a growth need (Heylighen, 1992). Maslow’s theory states that self – actualization is achieved when all other needs met. However, self – actualization appears to be a never – ending process. According to both theories, the whole person is motivated (Feist & Feist, 2009). Self – actualization is believed to correspond to an individual’s psychological health. Maslow believed that motivation was complex; Rogers believed that matters began simple and then progressed to complex. According to the Hierarchy of Needs, all people are motivated by the same needs with self – actualization being the highest need. However, the other needs may be in a different order. According to the Actualizing Tendency, the only motivation a person possesses is self – actualization.

Strengths and Limitations

The humanistic theories have strengths and weaknesses. Maslow’s theory does not have much evidence to support his claims. This is due to the fact that his observations are difficult to reproduce. Self – actualization remains popular for research even though the term is not clearly defined. There are no methods in which to prove self – actualization in people. Both theories are useful as a guide for practitioners. They both supply the practitioner with a foundation in which to help the patient. However, Rogers’ theory lacks a solid theoretical basis (Patterson & Joseph, 2007). This has allowed for some research to disprove the theory. However, the Hierarchy of Needs included in Maslow’s theory has a logical and consistent basis. Rogers’ theory does generate research is psychotherapy and classroom learning, but not in many other areas (Feist & Feist, 2009). While Maslow’s theory has poor wording, Rogers’ theory does have consistent wording and definitions.

 Personality

Individuals who have reached self – actualization, as defined by the humanistic theories, have distinguishing characteristics. These individuals are open to experience. He or she is eager to have new experiences, learn new ideas and skills, and try new things (Heylighen, 1992). These individuals are spontaneous and natural; they do not play roles. Self – actualizing individuals do not feel restricted and are not afraid that what they are doing is wrong. Self – actualizing individuals have a general creativity. These individuals are accepting towards nature, people, and the self. They are accepting of faults and situations beyond his or her control. They have a confidence when it comes to problem solving and decision making due to personal values. They are serene in times of failure or disaster. Self – actualizing people also have imperfections. When making errors, they are quicker to admitting and correcting them (Heylighen, 1992). Self – actualizing individuals sometimes feel out of place in their own culture. At times, they seem discourteous, disrespectful, unaffectionate, or hostile. This is usually due to the detachment and unconventionality he or she feels. They may seem cold and ruthless due to the unemotional decision making in the treatment of others (Heylighen, 1992). Their non – hostile sense of humor makes them appear serious. The concentration an individual focuses on problems makes them seem stubborn, absentminded, and short tempered.

Social Interactions

Self – actualizing individuals interact with those around them although they do not need other people. Self – actualizing individuals usually make decisions for themselves with little regard to the opinions of others or of society. Self – actualizing individuals are comfortable in solitude and have a need for privacy and independence (Heylighen, 1992). Although these individuals are comfortable alone and in their own decision making abilities, they have strong social interactions with others. These individuals have a strong sense of empathy towards humanity and are friendly to everyone. Self – actualizing people will listen to and learn from others with no prejudice. They tend to be selective about who they associate with. The relationships self – actualizing individuals have with others are usually more intense. Self – actualizing individuals are secure in who they are individually that the pressures of society do not affect them.

Conclusion

Humanistic theories are focused on the individual and his or her desire to be the best that they can be. Self – actualization has been theorized to only be accomplished by few of the population. While it appears that self – actualization is a goal only to be met after all other needs are met, it is actually a gradual process of improvement (Heylighen, 1992). Humanistic theories appear to be ideal theories for personality; however, they are just stepping stones to the understanding of personality. Sections of the theories seem to make sense, but with the research available there is more to study to completely prove or disprove them.

References

Feist, J., & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of Personality (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Heylighen, F. (1992). A cognitive - systemic reconstruction of Maslow's theory of self - actualization. Behavioral Science, 37(1), 39.

Patterson, T. J., & Joseph, S. (2007). Person - Centered personality theory: support from self - determination theory and positive psychology. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 47(1), 117-139.

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Introduction to Personality

Introduction to Personality

Personality is a complex aspect of psychology. Theorists such as Allport, Freud, Jung, Horney, and others tried to explain personality and behavior. Through each of the theories, personality psychology developed. Research continues to explain personality even more. Research is the cornerstone of understanding psychological concepts such as personality. Factors influencing personality development are a topic widely debated in the psychological community. Depending on the theorist’s viewpoint explains where he or she believed personality arose.

Personality Defined

 Psychologists differ as to the definition of personality and few have formally defined personality (Feist & Feist, 2009). Psychologist Gordon Allport is one of the psychologists who have defined personality. Allport defined personality as “the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his or her unique adjustment to his or her environment” (Rothbart, Ahadi, & Evans, 2000, p. 123). Personality consists of traits and characteristics. Traits may be unique, common, or shared. Traits are consistent and displayed in different situations. Traits contribute to the differences in behavior, consistency and stability of behavior (Feist & Feist, 2009).  Characteristics are unique to an individual. Characteristics include qualities such as physical, intelligence, temperament. Together, traits and characteristics create the unique personality of an individual. Personality is an individual’s characteristic pattern of feeling, thinking, and behaving. Personality distinguishes one person from another, thus making personality unique. Personality affects the way an individual acts in situations. Personality is the force behind the consistent behaviors exhibited by an individual in different situations.

Scientific Approach to Studying Personality

Research is the basis for which psychology is understood. Methods used to study personality include observation, interviews, and rating scales. Some psychologists prefer the observational method. This is simply observing behavior and then examining these observations closely. Researchers then use these observations to create theories and hypotheses about human behavior. Psychological tests may also be used in the study of personality. These psychological tests are the standard measures to assess behavior. They are used to help a person learn more about him or herself. Researchers have worked to improve the methods and abilities to predict personality and behavior. The result of this work is the development of assessment techniques such as personality inventories. For these inventories to be useful, they must have reliability and validity. Reliability refers to the measurement consistency of the test. A reliable test gives the same result each time it is given to a specific person or group. An unreliable test would give a different result each time it is given. Validity refers to whether or not the test actually measures what it was designed to measure. There is construct validity and predictive validity. Construct validity refers to the extent the test measures a hypothetical construct (Feist & Feist, 2009). A hypothetical construct has no physical existence. Therefore a hypothetical construct could be extraversion, aggressiveness, or intelligence. Predictive validity refers to the extent that a test could predict a future behavior (Feist & Feist, 2009). Behavioral genetics and qualitative genetic studies are important in personality development research. Behavioral genetics research has resulted in evidence that genetics influence personality (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005) .

Factors that may Influence an Individual's Personality Development

Many factors may influence an individual’s personality development. These factors can be internal dispositions or external circumstances (Carson, 1989). Personality traits encompass large range of differences from individual to individual. These traits show a large amount of genetic influence (Caspi, Roberts, & Shiner, 2005). These traits are not immune from experience. Other biological factors, besides heredity, that can influence a person’s personality development are physique, endocrine glands, and the nervous system. Environmental factors that may influence an individual’s personality development include home life, school, maturation, experiences, successes, and failures. It would be easy to pinpoint one exact influence on development. However, that is not possible and many factors contribute to one’s personality development. This is evidenced by the many personality theories created by psychologists. Different theorists believed personality was formed by certain factors, whether biological or environmental. Personality development falls under the nature versus nature debate. The development may be influenced by one or both.

Conclusion

 Personality research is a continuing topic in psychology. The need to understand personality also includes the need to understand behavior. Theorists believe that one’s personality influences behavior. Research continues to further understand personality by using methods such as personality inventories. Factors that influence personality are also important in understanding personality of an individual. Using the work of the early theorists and improving research methods will help the study of personality. 

References

Carson, R. (1989). Personality. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 227-248.

Caspi, A., Roberts, B. W., & Shiner, R. L. (2005). Personality Development: Stability and Change. Annual Review of Psychology, 56(1), 453-484. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/205849630?accountid=35812

Feist, J., & Feist, G. (2009). Theories of Personality (7th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Rothbart, M. K., Ahadi, S. A., & Evans, D. E. (2000). Temperament and personality: Origins and Outcomes. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 78(1), 122- 135. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.78.1.122

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Altruism in Society: Child Abuse Prevention

To view power point presentation: Altruism in Society

Altruism in Society

{Collaborated by E. Noori, T. Norton, R. Rinaudo, C. Swarmer, and A. Thompson}

Child abuse is a prevalent issue in the United States. In 2011, the number of child victims was 676,569 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012). Children under the age of one totaled the largest percentage of this number. It is vital to provide new mothers with information to aid in the prevention of child abuse. As a team, we propose implementing a mandatory program for new mothers. This program would educate women on child development, health, and parenting strategies. Altruism is a behavior aimed at helping others without personal gain (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). The mandatory education program is an example of an altruistic behavior.   

Child abuse constitutes the physical, emotional, or sexual mistreatment or act of a child. “Child abuse and neglect is a widespread problem in American society; child of any age, sex, race, religion and socioeconomic background can fall victim to maltreatment” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1999, p. 1). Child abuse is dated back to biblical and mythological times. “It would suffice to recall the stories of Abraham and Isaac, Moses and Medea, and King Nimrod of Babylon who began the “slaughter of the innocence” that killed 70,000 newborns (Solomon, 1973, p. 773). Killing defective children was a custom that was permitted through a ceremony called Wasser Weihe and “infanticide has been reported as a regular feature of numerous cultures including, Eskimo, Polynesian, Egyptian, African, American Indian, and Australian” (Solomon, 1973, p. 773).

The phenomenon of child abuse began with urbanization, industrialization, and technology. Children were suddenly considered valuable and an asset to society. It was not until the nineteenth century that the concern for child safety is established in the United States through the first Society for the Prevention of Cruelty of Children (SPCC). In 1974, The Child Abuse and Prevention and Treatment Act are established (CAPTA). CAPTA was amended to form the Emergency Child Abuse and Neglect Prevention Services Program. Grants were provided to fund programs including “comprehensive emergency services, public information and education, improvement of services to substance abuse-affected families, and multi-disciplinary/interdisciplinary training” (Department of Health and Human Services, 1999, p. 1). 

In 1983, the month of April became the first National Child Abuse Prevention Month. The 20th anniversary of child abuse prevention month occurred in 2003. The Federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act define child abuse and neglect as any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretakers who result in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation. Parents do not have the right to abuse children. Parents should give of themselves unconditionally for their children and will never intentionally make their lives difficult. There are many cases in which after a divorce parents vent their anger out on their children. This is unreasonable and irrational. Abuse is to treat a person cruelly or violently. There are many types of abuse such as physical, mental, emotional and neglect. Child abuse takes place in socioeconomic ranks, across every racial and cultural region, in every religion, and all rank of education. Child abuse leaves painful and permanent emotional or physical scars. In 2010 a predictable 905,000 children were sufferers of mistreatment within the United States. This means that 12 children per 1000 are victimized. 13,950 children in the United States died from abuse or neglect between 2001 and 2009. An estimated 2000 children will die from abuse or neglect this year 2013. Children who have experience with child abuse are 60% likely to be arrested as juveniles, 30% likely to be arrested as an adult, and 30% more likely to commit aggressive misdemeanor. Pimps take advantage of runaways. They control 50% of the children used for prostitution in the United States. Minors are subjugated for financial gain and the sexual satisfaction of the exploiters and of their clients. An abused child of today can be the criminal of tomorrow.

Persuasion is the “process by which a message induces change in beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors” (Myers, 2010, p. 230). The purpose of the mandatory parent education classes is to persuade new mothers to take a different action than abuse a child. The elements of persuasion are each important in campaigns. One element used in the parenting education classes campaign is the message. The message is the information shared. The message can come in different forms. For example, a message can focus on reasoning or emotion. Examples would be statistics (reasoning) and stories (emotion). The message depends on the type of person it is meant for. Well - educated or analytical people respond best to rational appeals (Myers, 2010). Thoughtful and involved audiences respond to reasoned arguments whereas uninterested audiences respond best based on his or her liking of the communicator. Emotions are important in relation to a message of persuasion. A message associated with positive emotions enhances positive thinking and messages associated with negative emotions usually entice fear. These fear – framed messages work best when used to prevent a bad outcome rather than promote a good outcome.

Playing in an individual’s fear is not always the best method. The primacy effect and recency effect are found in the element of message. Primacy effect states that information presented first usually has more influence (Myers, 2010). This is true when two views are presented within a reasonable amount of time from each other. Recency effect states that information presented last usually has more influence (Myers, 2010). This is true when there is a period between the two presentations. These two effects are important when presenting a message. The message used in the child abuse prevention campaign is the consequences of abuse and methods of preventing abuse. This message is best given as statistics and stories, thus stimulating the audience’s reasoning and emotions. 

A second element of persuasion is the method of the message. This explains how the message is delivered to the audience. There are different channels that a message may be delivered. These include face – to - face, signs, documents, and the media. The media is not the major influence on an individual; contact with others is. However, spoken appeals are not necessarily the most persuasive method either (Myers, 2010). There are several channels in which to deliver the child abuse prevention message. Because the primary focus of the campaign is education classes, the best method of delivery is face to face. This would include classroom lectures on topics of interest such as statistics, stories, and general information. Printed documents may supplement the lectures; giving the audience visual information as well. Using a combination of both methods ensures the audience is given different stimulation to receive the message. 

The third element used in this campaign is the audience. This element explains who is receiving the message. The self esteem of the audience plays an important role in the receipt of the message. Individuals with low self esteem are hard to persuade. This is because these individuals are slower to comprehend messages. Individuals with high self esteem comprehend messages. However, these individuals usually remain confident of his or her opinions. Individuals with moderate self esteem are the easiest audience to persuade. Attitudes are easily changeable during certain years of development. These years are the teens and early twenties. Attitudes formed during this period continue through middle adulthood. This does not mean that older generations cannot be persuaded. However, it is harder to persuade these generations. It is important to understand the audience targeted. Most new mothers are teens and young adults. Although these mothers may be easy to persuade with the campaign, methods to target older women need to be considered as well.

The use of bringing awareness to mothers by providing education is highly justified with the use of altruistic behavior. Altruistic behavior is to have complete selflessness about one another and as a mother feels that her child is abused she also wants to help others mothers she may never meet have the education she overlooked (Myers, 2010). When one mother shares her story of child abuse, she tends to share with others with the use of social exchange theory. Social exchange theory helps to motivate one to share with another with the use of separating cost with reward (Myers, 2010). Because the cost a child suffers from child abuse is so huge, one mother does what she needs to do to spread the message. According to the social exchange theory the cost of not spreading the message leads to punishment and in this case the punishment involves a child getting abused. One mother does not want another to feel the pain of witnessing abuse on her own child, but with the use of empathy one mother has the opportunity to reap the rewards of helping other mothers and children from experiencing the same pain. Another motivation for altruistic behavior is to feels socially accepted by others. When a person feels socially accepted for courageous acts of awareness, he or she feels that he or she has achieved what others expect from him or her. Not always do people feel that they are doing the right thing by discussing or bringing awareness to others, and this could be that the cost overrides the benefits. If a person does not feel that he or she could feel rewarded internally or externally from speaking up against child abuse the odds of him or her helping in spreading awareness comes to a halt. Social exchange and altruistic behavior go together and the motives for the education need to have greater rewards rather than consequences. Therefore, providing the correct information could increase the chances of minimizing child abuse.

Intervention of child abuse is the primary prevention method of stopping abuse before it can occur (Bethea, 1999). There are many aspects of intervention that can be implemented on many levels beginning with increasing the worth of the child.  Other aspects include increasing economic assistance, discouraging corporal punishment,  access to affordable health care, proper coordination of social services, accurate psychological care, alcohol and drug treatment, childcare cost within means, and avoidance of unwanted children (Bethea, 1999). 

A child’s worth is vital in the avoidance of child abuse. Programs are available to guide a family toward a positive and fulfilling parent and child relationship (DePanfilis, 2006). If parents can learn strategies while their children are young they can understand behavioral norms, concerns, and how to deal with them instead of acting out in an abusive manner.

            Increasing economic self-sufficiency produces a comfortable family life, and the eases ability to use resources that are available for support will create an environment for a sense of worth for a family. Encouragement to avoid corporal punishment may produce the desire to seek social services and counseling to find effective parenting ideas. Affordable health care can assist in the ability to have accurate psychological diagnosis, along with the treatment of alcohol and drug treatment, and ability to obtain birth control to avoid unwanted pregnancies. These intervention methods are only a portion of the recommendations to intervene before child abuse occurs.

Child abuse is a prevalent issue in the United States. It is vital to work to prevent child abuse to protect the children. Child abuse can be damaging to the child by lowering his or her self esteem and leading him or her to behaviors such as fighting, consuming drugs or alcohol, prostitution, or suicide. Therefore, child abuse should be prevented before it has a chance to occur. Implementing mandatory parenting education classes for new mothers is a good start. Careful planning should be taken when implementing these programs. One must consider the message, method, and audience. These elements are vital concerning the success of the campaign.

References

Bethea, L. (1999). Primary prevention of child abuse. American Family Physician, 59(6), 1577-1585. Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/1999/0315/p1577.html

DePanfilis, D. (2006). Child Neglect: A Guide for Prevention, Assessment, and Intervention. Retrieved from https://www.childwelfare.gov/pubs/usermanuals/neglect/neglect.pdf

Myers, D. (2010). Social psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw - Hill.

Solomon, T. (1973). History and Demography of Child Abuse. Pediatrics, 51(4), 773-776.

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (1999). Blending Perspectives and Building Common Ground: A Report to Congress on Substance Abuse and Child Protection. Retrieved from http://aspe.hhs.gov/hsp/subabuse99/subabuse.htm

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2012). National and State Child Abuse and Neglect Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.acf.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/cb/cm11.pdf

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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Conflict Resolution and Peacemaking

Conflict Resolution and Peacemaking

Individual’s face conflicts regularly through life. Conflict is defined as a “perceived incompatibility of actions or goals” (Myers, 2010, p. 484). Conflict could be resolved by following basic steps to reach a solution. Many adults cannot resolve conflicts in a positive and effective manner. This is a result of not being taught the process of conflict resolution and peacemaking as children. A teacher in California attempts to change that with her students.

Tiffany Hunter made the decision to teach her students in an environment that will develop them into a society instilled with peace (Hunter, 2008). Her mission is to teach values such as compassion and peace to her first graders. The class made a commitment to avoid violence as a solution to conflict. Instead the students sit at the peace table, a place to discuss and resolve conflicts. Students may use a mediator during conflict resolution. Mediators help by facilitating communication in a constructive manner (Myers, 2010). Ms. Hunter does not mediate for all conflicts her students face. She makes herself available but desires for the students to reach a solution on their own. Through activities in the classroom, Ms. Hunter teaches her students about empathy, diversity, community, and conflict resolution.

Empathy is defined as perceiving another’s thoughts and feelings (Myers, 2010). Empathy is vital to the conflict resolution process. Empathy is what helps an individual understand how the conflict affects the other person. Emotions can be expressed verbally or nonverbally. Children need to learn to understand their own emotions in order to develop empathy. Ms. Hunter works with her students on identifying emotions and understanding ways to change them. And individual’s social world involves diversity. Interactions occur with people of different gender, race, economic class, ethnicity, and characteristics. As children, individuals should promote social equality (Hunter, 2008). Through experiences with people of different backgrounds and abilities, individuals learn about equality.

Children should learn to use nonviolent approaches in problem solving (Hunter, 2008). By practicing the process of peaceful conflict resolution, individuals learn the skills needed for compromise, negotiation, and mediation. Ms. Hunter uses a three step process. The first step she uses is cool down when angry. After the students have cooled down, they begin the next step. The second step is to communicate. During this step she requires her students to discuss the conflict. The students must also listen to one another. It is during this step that her students realize that the conflict is a shared problem. This is the point of the conflict that the parties understand there is conflict and understand what the conflict is about. During communication empathy is formed. Communication is a vital aspect of conflict resolution. The third step in her process is to solve the problem together. The students are asked to brainstorm possible solutions to the conflict. These solutions should be win – win solutions. During conflict, individuals tend to focus on win – lose solutions. This means that one side is pleased whereas the other side is not. In a win – win solution both sides are pleased. After the students brainstorm solutions, they agree on one to try. Sometimes the conflict resurfaces because the solution was not the right one. When this happens, the students are required to sit down again and choose a different solution. During this process the students are taught efficient and peaceful conflict resolution.

Ms. Hunter believes that her method of teaching is beneficial to the students and the community. By using her methods, students develop skills needed to live and work in society (Hunter, 2008). She also believes that when students feel valued then they also feel empowered to make a positive social change. Conflict resolution should be handled in a peaceful and productive manner. By teaching children the proper process, a sustainable society will be formed. If all teachers taught these techniques, the cycle of physical and emotional violence can be broken. Children will develop into adults that are compassionate, empathetic, and understanding of diversity. 

References

Hunter, T. J. (2008). Creating a culture of peace in the elementary classroom. The Education Digest, 74(1), 54-58. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/218177790?accountid=35812

Myers, D. (2010). Social Psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw - Hill.

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Group Influence

Group Influence

A group is two or more people who interact with and influence each other (Myers, 2010). However, the dimensions of a group extend further. Within a group the behaviors of members affect other members, events within the group affect all members, and behaviors affect the success of the group. Franklin Fire and Rescue Department is one such group. The group dynamics within the organization demonstrate interaction and unity. Social influence occurs when an individual interacts with another individual or group. The impacts of this interaction may be positive or negative on the individual.  

Franklin Fire and Rescue is located in Franklin, Virginia. This organization is a division of the local government’s public safety department. The organization is comprised of approximately 60 members; some are paid employees of the city and some are volunteers. The mission of the department is to “save lives, protect property, and educate the public” (City of Franklin Virginia, 2012). Meetings for the department are held on the first Wednesday of the month in the building that houses the department in a living room setting containing sofas and chairs for seating. There is one large table where the officers sit. Seating for members is not fixed; he or she is free to sit in any available seat. Franklin Fire and Rescue is diverse in age of members. The ages range from 16 to 65 years of age. Members are primarily male; a small percentage is female. Ethnicity of this group is Caucasian and African – American.

There is a hierarchy within the department. There is a chief, assistant chief, captains, and lieutenants. There are also officers consisting of president, vice president, secretary, treasurer, and Chaplin. The meeting is facilitated by the highest attending officer; usually the president or vice president. The meeting begins with a prayer and welcome. The conversation then moves to a  pre-set agenda. This agenda consists of the minutes of the last meeting being read, the president’s report, the treasurer report, and the chief’s report. The other members are allowed to comment and communicate about the information being stated during these reports however he or she is not allowed to mention any new information. Once these reports have been read and discussed, the other members of the group have an opportunity to discuss issues or concerns he or she has. Primary topics discussed in the meeting were the previous month’s fire and rescue calls, upcoming events, and membership issues. The members of the group exchanged information based on previous situations as related to current situations. Members exchanged advice and criticisms for the previous month’s activities. Members were open to information exchange and did not take any criticism in a negative manner. Communication was open so that all members could communicate with one another. All members had the opportunity to exchange comments or concerns about any of the topics covered.  

Psychologist Irving Janis coined the term groupthink. This term relates the group’s desire for conformity to its decision making process. Groups that have groupthink are more concerned with the conformity of the group that the members may make incorrect decisions in order to preserve the harmony. Janis believed that groupthink developed when a group met three requirements. These requirements were the group was cohesive, the group was isolated from dissenting views, and the group had a leader who signaled the decision he or she favored (Myers, 2010). Franklin Fire and Rescue did not meet any of these requirements. While the group did seem to be mainly a united group, there were times of dissension. This dissension was met in a positive way to help the members learn and grow. The group did not want to make decisions that benefited only the group as a whole but benefited the members as individuals as well. Based on the definition of groupthink, Franklin Fire and Rescue was not vulnerable to it. The group was more concerned with making informed decisions than to keep harmony within the group.

Conformity is defined as changing or adopting behaviors or attitudes to be consistent with the social norms of a group (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). Franklin Fire and Rescue has social norms, or standards of behavior expected of its members. These norms include behavior while on fire and rescue calls as well as behavior in general while away from the department. These standards include basic behaviors such as refraining from criminal activity and moral behaviors. While most members adhere to these standards in his or her everyday life in general, all members are expected to conform to the standards. There are punishments for the members who do not conform to these standards. These punishments include suspensions and even release from the department.

The affect of a group may have a significant influence on an individual. Some studies have revealed that social interaction can intensify individual emotions (Barsade & Gibson, 2012). These social interactions can influence both individual and group outcomes. Social facilitation is an important aspect of the group experience. Social facilitation is the positive or negative effect on an individual’s performance attributed to the presence of others (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). Co – action effects is important in a group such as Franklin Fire and Rescue. Co – action effects are the impact on performance because due to the presence of others performing the same task. In an environment such as a fire department or rescue squad, the important aspect is to consider the person’s safety or property as more important than impressing others or doing better than others. In a group such as this, co – action effects can have a disastrous outcome. The members within this group understand the importance of the tasks he or she must perform. Due to this understanding, the members work together as a team rather than as individuals. The members of this group attend classes, training, and meetings together. The group is unified and appears to be as close as a family. The members are together in this group based on his or her desire to help others in the community.

Groups are a component in an individual’s life throughout the life span. Groups serve to assist an individual in various tasks within his or her life. Groups have their own standards, rules, and organization. Groups can have a negative or positive impact on an individual’s life. The Franklin Fire and Rescue Department strives to have a positive impact on all people; both members and the general public. This organization helps to save lives and property on a daily basis. The group members have learned to work together to achieve the goals of the group. The members conform to the standards set forth in order to maintain membership and have become a unified group because of the efforts of the members.

References

Barsade, S. G., & Gibson, D. E. (2012). Group affect: Its influence on individual and group outcomes. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(2), 119-123.

City of Franklin Virginia. (2012). Fire and Rescue. Retrieved from http://www.franklinva.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=29&Itemid=167

Myers, D. (2010). Social Psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it.

Infidelity and Cognitive Dissonance

Infidelity and Cognitive Dissonance

{Collaborated by E. Noori, T. Norton, R. Rinaudo, C. Swarmer, and A. Thompson}

An individual faces decisions every day. An important aspect in the decision making process is justification. Individuals seek justification for the decision made. However, at times a person holds two contradictory cognitions (Author Unknown, 2011). This conflict is called cognitive dissonance. When faced with a situation such as infidelity, an individual’s behavior may differ from his or her morals. The relationship between behavior and attitude is a complex one. There are several theories associated with a decision such as infidelity. Two of these theories are attribution theory and cognitive dissonance theory.

A married middle-aged woman decides to go out on the town with her friends to celebrate her birthday. She decides to go with her friends because her husband forgot her birthday. While out, she meets a young attentive man and has several drinks with him. She makes the decision that she is going to sleep with him regardless of her 13 years of marriage.  She never tells her husband about that night, but feels as if she was justified in doing so because her birthday slipped his mind. Her behavior of infidelity was manifested through both environmental situations, as well as thought processing. The woman’s subsequent behavior reflects self-justification to rationalize her actions. She had never before justified any reason for cheating. This decision went against her moral and cultural belief in the sanctity of marriage.

Attribution Theory is the way in which individuals clarify or identify how others behave (Myers, 2010). Within Attribution Theory, there are internal motives and external situations that enlighten the reasoning behind ones actions and behavior. Internal attribution is related to the traits of the individual, whereas external attribution relates to environmental or situation surrounding the behavior or action. Internal motives, or dispositional attribution, in the case of this woman, may have been due to lack of respect for her husband, because she believes he has no respect for her since he did not remember her birthday. She may be the type of person who is selfish, and instead of talking out her concerns with her husband she decides to seek revenge to satisfy her needs at the moment. External motives, or situational attribution, in her case may be because she was out with friends, had a few drinks, and excited about someone else being interested in her. She may have felt good at that time to be needed and able to satisfy someone else; when she thought maybe she could not do so for her husband. She may not have realized until she had already committed the act, that she was wrong.

Since the act of adultery is against her moral and cultural belief in the sanctity of marriage, she may decide to eventually confess her infidelity to her husband.  This may allow her to determine whether her actions are justified or unjustified based on her husband’s reaction. Her husband may make attributions about her infidelity, and whatever his thoughts are will influence each one’s response to the behaviors. His reactions may be negative and this may end in dissolution of their marriage. If his reactions are negative, but forgiving, this may allow her to find reassured that their marriage is salvageable. Both internal and external attributions will impact the future of this marriage, whether it be honored or dissolved.

An attitude is a person’s positive or negative thoughts that are concerned with the performance of their behavior. Attitudes define our ways of experiences. What we move towards to or away from; what we like or dislike. An attitude is a mode of behavior that is thought to be typical response of an individual. Often associated with personality and can influence behavior.

Attitudes are a collection of thoughts and beliefs that are created around specific items in our environment. People create associates between certain kinds of thoughts and beliefs. Attitudes are based on values, which people typically derive from family. There are three key components of attitudes, the cognitive, affective and behavioral. It is important to break these components down because each of them is slightly different from the other. The cognitive component is the beliefs people hold about the purpose of an attitude. The affective component is the emotional feelings stimulated by a purpose of thought. The behavioral component is a predisposition to act in certain ways towards an attitude purpose. These make up the behavioral components of attitudes. Psychologists have confirmed that these three components play into a person’s overall attitude.

The theory of planned behavior claims that an individual behavior is determined by behavioral intentions. Behavioral intentions are the role of an individual’s attitude is in the direction of the behavior and subjective norms contiguous to the performance of the behavior. Attitude is influenced by the behavioral beliefs about the consequences of carrying out the behavior and the outcome evolution, the positive or negative of the consequences. In additions to attitudes there are the subjective norms. It is the degree to which the person feels social pressure to carry out a behavior. The subjective norm is predicted by normative beliefs and motivation to comply (Park, 1998). Normative belief is the perceptions about the expectations of significant others. Motivation of comply is the perceived expectations of others. Perceived behavioral control consists of control beliefs and control frequency. Control beliefs are the degree of personal control, the individual perceives he or she has over the behavior in question. Control frequency is how often those barriers occur. Perceived behavioral control affects both intention and behavior.

            According to Bing Dictionary dissonance is a situation in which ideas or actions are opposed to each other. The purpose of cognitive dissonance theory is to change the attitude of the participants to take responsibilities for his or her actions. Cognitive dissonance theory believes that if a person can own or take responsibility for his or her negative actions they are more likely to change the behavior (Cheng & Hsu, 2012). On the opposing side, if an individual is not willing to accept his or her consequences the behavior is likely to continue. Under dissonance theory the individual must come to the conclusion that he or she made a conscious choice for his or her actions (Cheng & Hsu, 2012). “Cognitive dissonance theory assumes that to reduce discomfort, we justify our actions to ourselves (Myers, 2012 p.140).”

              Infidelity, a touching yet interesting topic follows logical reasoning for how dissonance theory could easily explain the behavior. Rationalizing infidelity under the dissonance theory, by the individual who committed infidelity is to find a way to help take responsibility for the behavior. Rationalizations for this behavior include him or her made me do it and if they had been more aware of my feelings and needs this would have never happened. The outcome for dissonance theory is for the individual rationalizing his or her behavior would be to have him or her start the process of admitting the negative actions. The admitting of the negative actions would include the flaws that lead to the distance between the couple.

              Infidelity is a behavior that contradicts many individual’s morals. An individual’s behavior is usually a reflection of his or her attitudes. However, at times an individual’s behavior contradicts his or her attitude. When this conflict occurs, the individual begins to justify or rationalize the reasons for his or her behavior. This justification can be attempted using attribution or cognitive dissonance theory. The individual must be prepared for the consequences of his or her behavior.

  

References

Author Unknown (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Cheng, P., & Hsu, P. (2012). Cognitive Dissonance Theory and the certification examination:

            The role of responsibility. Social Behavior and Personality, 40(7), 1103-1111.

Hall, J. H., & Fincham, F. D. (2006). Relationship dissolution following infidelity: The roles of

            attributions and forgiveness. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(5), 508-522.

Myers, D. G. (2010). Social Psychology (10th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Park, H. S. (1998). The theory of reasoned action and self - construal in predicting intention of

            studying among Korean college students. Communication Research Reports, 15(3), 267-279.

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Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use our work, please reference it.