Gender Identity

Gender Identity

       Gender identity is a complex and multi-dimensional element of a person (Egan & Perry, 2001). Gender identity is the self – identification as male or female. Gender identity, however, is not the same as sexual orientation (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Both biological and environmental factors contribute to one’s gender identity. Many people have the assumption that there are male and female hormones that determine gender identity (Pinel, 2009). However, this is not the case. In this paper, I will discuss how hormones, as well as environment, affect one’s gender identity and behavior.

Biological Factors and Sexual Differentiation

        The human body consists of many hormones. Among them are androgens, estrogens, and progestins. Androgens and estrogens are both the most common classes of gonadal hormones. A third class of gonadal hormones is progestins. The most common progestin is progesterone. Progesterone prepares the uterus and breasts for pregnancy in females; however it is unclear of its purpose in males (Pinel, 2009). Although it is widely assumed that androgens are “male” hormones and estrogens are “female” hormones. In actuality, men and women have the same hormones although at different levels. These hormones also do not perform the same functions in both sexes.

        Males and females are both exposed to high levels of estrogens during the fetal stage. However, males are exposed to high androgen levels during the same period (Swabb, 2004). Studies on female humans show that an early exposure to male hormones can result in more masculine behaviors. In studies of men with low testosterone levels, it was discovered that they had female – like behavior patterns. In an animal study, male rats were castrated (Sue, Sue,  & Sue, 2010). Castration reduced the production of testosterone and as a result, the rats began displaying female – like behaviors.

       Not all current research supports the theory that sex hormones are the driving force behind one’s gender identity. There has been animal experimentation evidence supporting other biological factors. One such study supported the theory that dopaminergic neurons may develop functional sex functions when sex hormones are absent (Swabb, 2004). According to this research, the genes believed to play a role in gender identity are located on the recombining part of the Y chromosome. The two particular genes are ZFY and SRY, which both influence the testis. Also, both these genes are transcribed in the hypothalamus and frontal and temporal cortex in men. These genes are not found in women. This could possibly mean that sex – specific cell – intrinsic signals are needed for a full differentiation on male brains. Several biological factors can impact gender identity, such as neurohormonal factors, genetics and brain differences.

Environmental Factors and Sexual Differentiation

        Over the last thirty years, the assumptions of how men and women should act have changed. The masculinity model was developed in the early 1980’s (Burnett, 1995). This model labeled masculinity as having certain behavioral traits. These included decisiveness, independence, and competiveness. For many years, it was believed this is how men should act and women were to act more feminine.

        Some researchers conclude that parental encouragement impacts gender identity (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Theories include children whose parents allow and encourage behavior such as cross – dressing. Some believe that this encourages the child to identify with the opposite gender. Some theories conclude that young boys who play with dolls will identify with feminine behavior later on. This theory is also true for young girls who play with more masculine toys.

        An element of gender identity is to feel compatible with one’s gender group (Egan & Perry, 2001). When outside factors such as the desire to cross – dress or feeling more compatible with the opposite gender isolates a person from their own gender. They cannot identify with their own gender and feel more comfortable identifying as the opposite. These feelings can lead to Gender Identity Disorder (GID). Again, these feelings have no impact on their sexual preference, as they may still be heterosexual but would rather live as the opposite gender.

         The psychodynamic perspective holds the theory that gender identity is a result of childhood. When a person strays from the “norm” of gender behavior, it is believed that unconscious conflicts from childhood have caused the person to identify with the opposite gender. While many theorists and researchers have developed theories and conducted research, there is little evidence to support the environmental factors as having a large impact on gender identity.

Nature vs Nurture

            The debate of nature versus nurture has been debated since classical Greek times. It has been one of the most debated topics in psychology. Based upon my research, I believe that biological, or nature, has more influence on gender identity. Based upon the research studies I read, it seems that gender identity is influenced by a lack or excess of sex hormones. While I believe that biological factors have more influence on gender identity, I cannot absolutely rule out environmental factors. It is possible that both biological and environmental factors have a role on gender identity. I believe that there needs to be much more research done in this area to learn more about it. Then we can truly decide if gender identity is biological, environmental or both.

Conclusion

          Gender identity is important in the development of a person. If we are to believe that biological factors have an impact on gender identity, then our gender identity development begins in the fetal stage. Some research supports that sex hormones determines our identity. Other research supports other biological reasons for a person’s identity such as genetics or brain differences between the sexes. Then there is yet other research that supports environmental causes for a person’s gender identity. Discovering why a person identifies with a particular gender is important in order to provide therapy to those persons suffering from Gender Identity Disorder.

References

Burnett, J. (1995). Gender Roles and Self-Esteem: A Consideration of Environmental Factors. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73(3), 323.

Egan, S. K., & Perry, D. G. (2001). Gender identity: A multidimensional analysis with implications for psychosocial adjustment. Developmental Psychology, 37(4), 451-463. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.37.4.451

Pinel, J. J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Sue, D., Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding Abnormal Psychology (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

Swabb, D. (2004). Sexual differentation of the human brain: relevance for gender identity, transsexualism and sexual orientation. Gynecological Endocrinology, 19(6), 301-312. doi:10.1080/09513590400018231

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Case Study Analysis: The Case of Aunt Betty Who Lost Half her Body

The following is a Power Point Presentation done in collaboration by the team of T. Cross, M. Lewis, and myself. Please click the link to see the presentation.

Case Study Analysis: The Case of Aunt Betty Who Lost Half her Body

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Male and Female Brains

What differences are known to exist between male and female brains?

Scientists are still researching the differences between the male and female brains as well as the effect of these differences on behavior. One difference is that men’s brains have a higher proportion of white matter than those of women. Men have a lower proportion of white matter in the left brain than in the right. In women the proportion is equal. There is also some research to support the theory that different areas of the brain are stimulated based on the task depending on sex. For example, when processing navigational information, the left hippocampus is stimulated in men. In women, this task stimulates the right parietal cortex and the right frontal cortex. There is also research to support the theory that men and women use different areas of the brain when searching for a location of a sound. The distribution of gray and white matter may also point to other differences between the sexes (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). For example, in men, the distribution of gray and white matter across the two hemispheres may explain their abilities in mental rotation of geometric figures. In women, the location of more gray matter in an area of the brain may result in higher emotional perception.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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REM Sleep and Learning

Why is rapid eye movement sleep so important to learning?

Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep is considered active sleep and comprises 20-25% of normal sleep for an adult in a night. There is intense brain activity during REM sleep. Some research shows that REM sleep aids in information processing. REM sleep appears to be critical in the consolidation of memories after learning. In 1994, Karni and others conducted a research experiment to determine a link between REM sleep and learning (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). For their research, participants learned a new skill. The participants that had a normal night’s sleep or did not have their REM sleep interrupted showed performance improvement. Performance did not improve in the participants who had their REM sleep interrupted. Their research also showed that short naps involving REM sleep also enhanced learning. 

According to Wood, Wood, & Boyd (2011), the high percentage of time an infant spends in REM sleep leads to the conclusion that REM sleep is important in the neurological development of infants. I can see how that conclusion can be drawn since infancy is an important time of learning. According to my research, REM sleep is important in sifting through and organizing experiences and then storing the information in memory. Perhaps the amount of REM sleep an infant gets determines how quickly or slowly they master a new skill than other babies their age?

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Genetics, Brain, Structure and Behavior

The following is a Power Point Presentation done in collaboration by the team of T. Cross, M. Lewis, and myself. Please click the link to see the presentation.

Genetics, Brain, Structure and Behavior

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Absolute Threshold and Vision

What is the absolute threshold and how does it relate to vision? Provide an example of how this influences your perception of an object.

According to Wood, Wood, & Boyd (2011), absolute threshold is the minimum amount of sensory stimulation that can be detected by a person 50% of the time. Absolute threshold can simply be defined as the difference between not being able to perceive a stimulus and just being able to perceive it. Wood, Wood, & Boyd (2011) used a threshold of a doorway to explain absolute threshold. In terms of vision, the absolute threshold refers to the smallest level of light that can be detected. An example would be a lit candle. If a person can see it from a distance of 5 miles but not further, then that person’s absolute threshold of vision is 5 miles.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Motor Pathway Damage and Parkinson's Disease

How would you describe the damage to the motor pathway in the brain of a person with Parkinson’s disease?

According to Sue, Sue, & Sue (2010), Parkinson’s may be caused by lesions in the motor area of the brainstem. This is due to the loss of dopamine – producing brain cells. According to Knierim (2012), the damage to the motor pathway of a Parkinson’s patient is caused by the death of dopaminergic neuron in the substania nigra pars compacta. The substania nigra is part of the basal ganglia and lies in the midbrain. The activity in this part of the brain excites the direct pathway and inhibits the indirect pathway. The loss of the nigrostriatal pathway, a dopamine pathway that connects the substania nigra and the striatum, alters the excitation and inhibition in the basal ganglia. This reduces the excitation of the motor cortex. The reduction of the thalamic excitation interferes with the motor cortex’s ability to generate the commands for movement. While the cause of the death of these neurotransmitters is still completely unknown, researchers have some theories as to the cause (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). These theories include infections of the brain, toxins, cerebrovascular disorders, brain trauma, carbon monoxide poisoning, and possibly genetics. However, there are still some Parkinson’s cases that are unkown as to the cause of the disorder.

Knierim, J. (2012). Chapter 6: Disorders of the Motor System. (The University of Texas) Retrieved August 23, 2012, from Neuroscience Online: http://neuroscience.uth.tmc.edu/s3/chapter06.html

Sue, D., Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding Abnormal Behavior (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

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Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) and Adolescent Depression

What do you see as the major factors involved in the controversy with the use of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor used to treat adolescent depression?

Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) are antidepressant medications used to treat depression. SSRIs work by permitting serotonin to linger longer in the synapse (McGraw-Hill, 2011). However, some research shows that there is an increase of suicidal thoughts in children and adolescents when on SSRIs. In a review of pediatric trials involving 2200 children taking SSRIs, 4% had suicidal thoughts (Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers, 2012). This was two times more than the ones taking placebos. It was also noted that none of the children had attempted suicide. Another side effect of SSRIs is agitation, which is not always a good effect for adolescents. Between the suicidal thoughts and the possible agitation in adolescents, I can see why there is some controversy over prescribing SSRIs to adolescents and even children. Because of the research conducted, the FDA has approved only Fluoxetine (Prozac) for the treatment of children ages 8 to 17. Additionally, Escitalopram (Lexapro) has been approved for adolescents over the age of 12.

Antidepressant Medications for Children and Adolescents: Information for Parents and Caregivers. (2012). Retrieved August 18, 2012, from National Institute of Mental Health: http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/child-and-adolescent-mental-health/antidepressant-medications-for-children-and-adolescents-information-for-parents-and-caregivers.shtml

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

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Neurotransmitters and Behavior

Identify two to three primary neurotransmitters and discuss their role in behavior.

According to McGraw-Hill (2011), neurotransmitters are the chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite, and sometimes the cell body, of a receiving neuron. Neurotransmitters are an important link between the nervous system and behavior (McGraw-Hill, 2011). One of the major neurotransmitters is Acetylcholine. This neurotransmitter is involved in our muscle movement and cognitive functioning. Since acetylcholine is associated with memory, diminished levels of this neurotransmitter may be related to Alzheimer’s disease. Another major neurotransmitter is dopamine. Dopamine is involved in movement control, pleasure and reward, attention and learning. A deficiency in dopamine has been linked to Parkinson’s disease. People with Parkinson’s disease have muscle tremors and impaired coordination (movement control). Some researchers have suggested that overproduction of dopamine is related to schizophrenia. Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) may be caused by inadequate dopamine in the central nervous system (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Researchers are also studying the effects of dopamine in eating disorders. Some research says that low dopamine is related to the desire to eat more and high dopamine is related to a decrease in appetite. A third major neurotransmitter is serotonin. Serotonin is involved in sleeping, eating, mood, pain and depression. Research also concludes that serotonin may be involved in alcoholism and aggression. Serotonin can be linked to mood disorders, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders.

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Sue, D., Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding Abnormal Behavior (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Humans in Biopsychology Research

What are the advantages and disadvantages to using humans in biopsychology research?

When conducting biopsychological research, researchers use both human and non human subjects. Using either of them has its advantages and disadvantages. The greatest advantage of using a human subject is that simply they have human brains. Since the vast majority of research is to discover the link between the human brain and human behavior, this is only logical. Another advantage is that humans can follow the directions presented to them. Humans can report subjective experiences. Human subjects are also usually cheaper than non human subjects. However, using human subjects also has disadvantages. One disadvantage is that human brains are more complex than those of non human subjects. Although there are ethical guidelines for non human subjects, there is some research that can be conducted on them not otherwise acceptable for human subjects.

Resources:

Pinel, J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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Assumptions of a Biopsychology Approach

Explore the major underlying assumptions of a biopsychology approach.

The prefix bio- stands for biological. Psychology is the scientific study of behavior (Pinel, 2009). Together as biopsychology, it means the biological study of behavior. The biopsychology approach views behavior from the perspective of the brain, nervous system and other biological functions (McGraw-Hill, 2011). Within the biopsychology approach, heredity and evolution are studied. Biopsychologists research to discover if behaviors are inherited from our ancestors or if they evolved naturally through mankind. Psychologists look at several biological functions to understand behavior. These include individual nerve cells and how they join, inherited behaviors from parents or other ancestors, functioning of our body in relation to our emotions, etc. Biopsychology is considered one of the neurosciences. Biopsychologists usually stand on the nature side of the nature-nurture debate. This means they usually believe that our genetic makeup and neurosystem is the root of our behaviors.

McGraw-Hill. (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.

Pinel, J. (2009). Biopsychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

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