Cognitive, Neurophysiological, and Evolutionary Theories

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Cognitive, Neurophysiological, and Evolutionary Theories

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Piaget Chart

Piaget Chart

Stage	Description	Task
Sensorimotor Stage	Occurs between Birth and age 2. Child can construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions, progresses from reflexive and instinctual action to the beginning of symbolic thought, begins to develop object permanence and motor skills, has little to no capacity for symbolic representation and has an absence of language.	Child begins to understand that during a game of peek - a - boo, the person has not disappeared. This is the beginning of object permanence.
Preoperational Stage	Occurs between ages two and seven. The child represents the world with words and images, has increased symbolic thinking, develops language, has egocentric thinking, and begins to understand the principle of conservation. This stage has two substages: preconceptual thinking and period of intuitive thought.	During this stage, a child understands that a ball is a ball. The child associates the word “ball” with the image of a ball.
Concrete Operational Stage	Occurs between the ages of seven and eleven. The child can reason logically about concrete events, can classify objects into sets, masters the principle of conservation, and understands the concept of reversibility.	The child sees two rows of four quarters each. Row one has the quarters close together but the second row has a space between the coins. The child is able to understand that both rows have the same amount of coins despite the spacing.
Formal Operational Stage	Occurs from age eleven and through adulthood. The child can reason in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways, can entertain possibilities of the future, and is more systematic in problem solving.	The child is able to work through algebra problems.

References

McGraw - Hill (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: Author.

Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Santrock, J. W. (2010). Children (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw - Hill.

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Classical Conditioning

Classical Conditioning

Within psychology there are several types of learning. Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov discovered one type of learning accidentally (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). While studying the digestive system of dogs, Pavlov became interested with his observation that the dogs responded to the sight of the experimenter just as they did to food. Thus, classical conditioning was born. While Pavlov first used animals in experiments, it was discovered that classical conditioning principles were evident in many aspects of everyday human behavior (McGraw - Hill, 2011). The classical conditioning method of learning is evident throughout the life span and may be used to create a behavior, such as fear, or erase a previously learned behavior, such as addiction.

Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning is a basic form of associative learning (Malaka, 1999). After Ivan Pavlov made the connection between salivating dogs and the experimenter’s footsteps, he began to study the components of classical conditioning. Pavlov stated that the most important factor was the connection between the stimulus and response. In a basic definition, classical conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with another stimulus to elicit the response naturally brought about by the second stimulus. A neutral stimulus brings about a response before conditioning. This response is the response of interest to the experimenter. The main components involved in classical conditioning are the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned stimulus, and the conditioned response. An unconditioned stimulus is one in which a response is brought without being learned. A conditioned stimulus is a once neutral stimulus when paired with the unconditioned stimulus brings about the response that was once caused by the unconditioned stimulus. How can one tell if a stimulus is conditioned or unconditioned? A person must consider if the stimulus causes the unconditioned response in every normal human (McGraw - Hill, 2011). The unconditioned response is natural and requires no training. A term associated with the unconditioned response is reflex (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). A conditioned response is one that occurs after conditioning following the addition of a neutral stimulus. Pavlov also explained extinction in relation to classical conditioning. Extinction, in this sense, occurs when a conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears. In order for extinction to occur, the conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus association must end. Also included in classical conditioning theory is spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalization, stimulus discrimination, and higher – order conditioning. Spontaneous recovery explains the “reemergence of an extinguished response after a period of rest and no further conditioning” (McGraw - Hill, 2011, p. 116). Spontaneous recovery explains the reason why some drug addictions are difficult to overcome. Sometimes in classical conditioning the two stimuli are similar or distinct. Stimulus generalization occurs when a conditioned response follows two stimuli that are similar. Generalization is more likely to occur when the two stimuli have a high similarity. Stimulus discrimination occurs when two stimuli are distinct from each other to the point that one stimulus results in a conditioned response but the other does not. Higher – order conditioning occurs when the “conditioned stimuli are linked together and form a series of signals” (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011, p. 153) . An example of this is the fear of the dentist. The waiting room, dentist chair, and tools may all be stimuli causing the fear.

 Classical Conditioning Scenario

For my scenario, I have chosen to illustrate the dinner routine in my home. We do not have a typical routine as other families. Our dinner routine consists of each child coming to the kitchen, receiving his or her plate, and then sitting at the table to eat. Previously I had to call for the children to come to the kitchen, even if I was within sight. One day I took the plates and utensils out as dinner was finishing and then called the children to the table. After several days of this method, I stopped calling the names and only took the plates and utensils out and sat them on the counter.  The children came to the kitchen upon hearing them placed on the counter. The children had learned to come to the kitchen when I took the plates and utensils out.

Classical Conditioning Chart

            US(calling the children’s name) -> UR(coming for dinner)
            CS(Getting plates and utensils) + US(Calling children’s names) -> UR(coming for dinner)
            CS(Getting plates and utensils out) -> CR(coming for dinner)

Conclusion

Classical conditioning is an important learning tool in a human’s life. This type of learning can be used throughout the life span. Through the use of classical conditioning, a person may be helped through a fear or addiction. Classical conditioning can also cause harmful behaviors in a person. Ivan Pavlov, although accidentally, discovered an important model in the learning process.

References

Malaka, R. (1999). Models of Classical Conditioning. Bulletin of Mathematical Biology, 61(1), 33-83.

McGraw - Hill (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: Author.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it.

Functionalist and Associationistic Theories

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Functionalist and Associationistic Theories

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Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Edward Thorndike formulated the law of effect theory. His theory was the starting point for B.F. Skinner and the formulation of operant conditioning (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). B. F. Skinner began using the term operant conditioning in 1937. The purpose of Skinner’s work was reflex physiology (Starring & Cerutti, 2003). Skinner’s views were different than the views of behaviorism that came before him. The primary element in Skinner’s work was operant behavior, or behavior that was controlled by its consequences. Many people would call this behavior a habit. Skinner’s theories have become an important component in psychology and child-rearing. The uses of Skinner’s operant behavior theories are evident in various aspects of psychology including behavior modification therapy.  

Operant Conditioning Theory

From his research, Skinner concluded that living organisms were conditioned by their environment (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Skinner developed the operant conditioning theory where behavior and the resulting consequences are the emphasis. In operant conditioning, behavior changes because of the resulting consequences of the said behavior. This new theory was important to learning as one could learn a broader range of responses. According to Skinner, “we are what we have been reinforced for being” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 76). In other words, he believed reinforcements were needed to condition behavior. Operant conditioning does such. Reinforcement can be a reward or punishment depending on the behavior desired.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Consequences, often called reinforcements, are a crucial component of operant conditioning. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative. A positive reinforcement causes an increase in a behavior as a result of the consequence. Positive reinforcements include praise and a reward. A negative reinforcement causes an increase in behavior in order to remove an unwanted stimulus. An example of this is using anti-itch cream to relieve itching. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase a behavior.

Effective Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is viewed as the most effective reinforcement. Positive reinforcement provides a person with a positive outlook on behavior and consequences. Skinner argued against the use of punishment as it only lasts as long as it is enforced. Punishment also did not show the model behavior desired. Reinforcement for acceptable behavior is more effective because of these reasons. Punishment was viewed as a quick solution whereas reinforcement was viewed as learning the behavior.

Operant Conditioning Scenario

As a parent, I have the opportunity to use operant conditioning on behavior. As a home schooling parent, I have the opportunity to expand operant conditioning even further. When schooling your own children, particularly at home, there is conflict. My children would decide to play rather than do their lessons. This became frustrating as they needed to learn these lessons in order to pass the state tests. I then decided to implement some sort of programs to reinforce the good behavior associated with doing assignments. For each child I set up a reward system. Each time a child completed the daily work for a class, he or she received a star. At the end of the week, he or she could exchange the stars for rewards such as video game time, computer time, etc. This system is an example of positive reinforcement. The behavior of completing work increased in order to gain the reward.

Reinforcement Schedule for Scenario

In the above scenario, for good behavior (completing assignments) the behavior was positively reinforced by the rewarding of a star. This is an example of continuous reinforcement schedule since a star was rewarded for each completed assignment. This schedule was effective for the children once they understood that the good behavior would be rewarded and the bad behavior would not be. More emphasis was placed on the rewarding of the star rather than on not receiving the star. This keeps them focused on the positive reinforcement (reward) rather than the negative punishment (no reward).

Conclusion

Operant conditioning is used in daily lives. Many of a person’s behaviors are influenced by the consequences resulting from the behavior. An increase of behavior to obtain a reward or avoid a punishment happens in different aspects of life at various ages. Parents use Skinner’s operant conditioning theory in child-rearing to obtain the behaviors accepted for children. Operant conditioning can be used as a behavior modification tool; conditioning behavior to rid a person of an addiction. Skinner’s creation of the operant conditioning theory was valuable in the science of psychology.

References

Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Starring, J. E., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant Conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115-144. doi:10.1146/annurev.psycho.54.101601.145124

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Plagiarism:

Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it.

Learning and Cognition

Learning and Cognition

Learning is one of the most important and studied aspects in modern psychology. In order for one to understand learning, one must also understand behavior. Theorists use classical and instrumental conditioning to explain the changes in behavior. Learning and cognition are intertwined and both need to be present to understand learning. With a proper understanding of behavior and cognition, one can understand learning. 

Definition of Learning

Learning is most commonly defined as gaining knowledge, comprehension, or mastery through experience or study (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). However, psychologists prefer a different definition. In psychology, learning is defined as the “relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience” (McGraw Hill, 2011, p. 112). This change in behavior cannot occur because of illness, injury, maturation, or chemical substances.

Role of Behavior in Learning

Psychology is a behavioral science; therefore an observable and measurable subject is required. In psychology, the subject studied is behavior. Researchers make inferences regarding the learning process based upon the observable behavior. Researchers study what is expressed through behavior, however, behavior may not always be from learning. B.F. Skinner believed that behavioral changes were learning whereas other theorists believed that behavioral changes were the result of learning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Except for Skinner and his followers, theorists believe that learning is a result of experience and occurs before the changes in behavior. In theory, in order to understand learning, one must also understand the behavior associated with it.

Types of Learning

According to Olson and Hergenhahn, there are different types of learning (2009). These types include classical and instrumental conditioning. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus brings about a response when paired with a stimulus that naturally brings the response. An example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov’s research with dogs. At first, the dog salivated when presented with food. After Pavlov began ringing a bell and then presenting the dogs with food, the dog began to salivate at the ringing of a bell. Emotional responses are likely to be learned through classical conditioning (McGraw Hill, 2011). An example is the research done with “Little Albert.” Experimenters made a loud noise behind the child while showing him a rat. The child began to associate the frightening sound with the rat and began to fear rats. Classical conditioned learning happens throughout a person’s lifespan. Another type of conditioning is instrumental. In instrumental conditioning, there is a relationship between behavior and reinforcement (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). In instrumental conditioning, the behavior is present before the reinforcement. An example of instrumental conditioning is rewarding a child for good behavior. The child only gets the reward if his or her behavior is instrumental for the reward. Conditioning can be positive or negative learning.

Relationship between Learning and Cognition

However, conditioning does not explain learning such as reading. Theorists deduced that learning also involves the cognitive processes. The cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, forming mental representations, and problem solving (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). Cognitive theorists believe that one must first understand these processes in order to have a more comprehensive view of learning. Not all learning takes place with conditioning (McGraw Hill, 2011). Learning activities such as driving a car use the cognitive processes. These types of activities are more than conditioning; thought processes are used to carry out the activity. Cognitive theorists developed approaches focused on the mental processes rather than on external stimuli, reinforcements, and responses (McGraw Hill, 2011).

Conclusion

By studying the relatively permanent behavior change, a theorist has his or her subject matter to understand learning. Theorists use two psychological paradigms, classical and instrumental conditioning, to demonstrate the association between cognition and learning. The relationship between cognition and learning is important and both components are required to fully understand learning. Learning without cognition is only potential. Cognition without learning is only reflex and instinct.

References

McGraw Hill (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NV: Author.

Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Plagiarism:

Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it.