Operant Conditioning

Operant Conditioning

Edward Thorndike formulated the law of effect theory. His theory was the starting point for B.F. Skinner and the formulation of operant conditioning (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). B. F. Skinner began using the term operant conditioning in 1937. The purpose of Skinner’s work was reflex physiology (Starring & Cerutti, 2003). Skinner’s views were different than the views of behaviorism that came before him. The primary element in Skinner’s work was operant behavior, or behavior that was controlled by its consequences. Many people would call this behavior a habit. Skinner’s theories have become an important component in psychology and child-rearing. The uses of Skinner’s operant behavior theories are evident in various aspects of psychology including behavior modification therapy.  

Operant Conditioning Theory

From his research, Skinner concluded that living organisms were conditioned by their environment (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Skinner developed the operant conditioning theory where behavior and the resulting consequences are the emphasis. In operant conditioning, behavior changes because of the resulting consequences of the said behavior. This new theory was important to learning as one could learn a broader range of responses. According to Skinner, “we are what we have been reinforced for being” (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009, p. 76). In other words, he believed reinforcements were needed to condition behavior. Operant conditioning does such. Reinforcement can be a reward or punishment depending on the behavior desired.

Positive and Negative Reinforcement

Consequences, often called reinforcements, are a crucial component of operant conditioning. Reinforcement can be either positive or negative. A positive reinforcement causes an increase in a behavior as a result of the consequence. Positive reinforcements include praise and a reward. A negative reinforcement causes an increase in behavior in order to remove an unwanted stimulus. An example of this is using anti-itch cream to relieve itching. Both positive and negative reinforcement increase a behavior.

Effective Reinforcement

Positive reinforcement is viewed as the most effective reinforcement. Positive reinforcement provides a person with a positive outlook on behavior and consequences. Skinner argued against the use of punishment as it only lasts as long as it is enforced. Punishment also did not show the model behavior desired. Reinforcement for acceptable behavior is more effective because of these reasons. Punishment was viewed as a quick solution whereas reinforcement was viewed as learning the behavior.

Operant Conditioning Scenario

As a parent, I have the opportunity to use operant conditioning on behavior. As a home schooling parent, I have the opportunity to expand operant conditioning even further. When schooling your own children, particularly at home, there is conflict. My children would decide to play rather than do their lessons. This became frustrating as they needed to learn these lessons in order to pass the state tests. I then decided to implement some sort of programs to reinforce the good behavior associated with doing assignments. For each child I set up a reward system. Each time a child completed the daily work for a class, he or she received a star. At the end of the week, he or she could exchange the stars for rewards such as video game time, computer time, etc. This system is an example of positive reinforcement. The behavior of completing work increased in order to gain the reward.

Reinforcement Schedule for Scenario

In the above scenario, for good behavior (completing assignments) the behavior was positively reinforced by the rewarding of a star. This is an example of continuous reinforcement schedule since a star was rewarded for each completed assignment. This schedule was effective for the children once they understood that the good behavior would be rewarded and the bad behavior would not be. More emphasis was placed on the rewarding of the star rather than on not receiving the star. This keeps them focused on the positive reinforcement (reward) rather than the negative punishment (no reward).

Conclusion

Operant conditioning is used in daily lives. Many of a person’s behaviors are influenced by the consequences resulting from the behavior. An increase of behavior to obtain a reward or avoid a punishment happens in different aspects of life at various ages. Parents use Skinner’s operant conditioning theory in child-rearing to obtain the behaviors accepted for children. Operant conditioning can be used as a behavior modification tool; conditioning behavior to rid a person of an addiction. Skinner’s creation of the operant conditioning theory was valuable in the science of psychology.

References

Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Starring, J. E., & Cerutti, D. T. (2003). Operant Conditioning. Annual Review of Psychology, 54, 115-144. doi:10.1146/annurev.psycho.54.101601.145124

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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Learning and Cognition

Learning and Cognition

Learning is one of the most important and studied aspects in modern psychology. In order for one to understand learning, one must also understand behavior. Theorists use classical and instrumental conditioning to explain the changes in behavior. Learning and cognition are intertwined and both need to be present to understand learning. With a proper understanding of behavior and cognition, one can understand learning. 

Definition of Learning

Learning is most commonly defined as gaining knowledge, comprehension, or mastery through experience or study (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). However, psychologists prefer a different definition. In psychology, learning is defined as the “relatively permanent change in behavior that is brought about by experience” (McGraw Hill, 2011, p. 112). This change in behavior cannot occur because of illness, injury, maturation, or chemical substances.

Role of Behavior in Learning

Psychology is a behavioral science; therefore an observable and measurable subject is required. In psychology, the subject studied is behavior. Researchers make inferences regarding the learning process based upon the observable behavior. Researchers study what is expressed through behavior, however, behavior may not always be from learning. B.F. Skinner believed that behavioral changes were learning whereas other theorists believed that behavioral changes were the result of learning (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). Except for Skinner and his followers, theorists believe that learning is a result of experience and occurs before the changes in behavior. In theory, in order to understand learning, one must also understand the behavior associated with it.

Types of Learning

According to Olson and Hergenhahn, there are different types of learning (2009). These types include classical and instrumental conditioning. In classical conditioning, a neutral stimulus brings about a response when paired with a stimulus that naturally brings the response. An example of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov’s research with dogs. At first, the dog salivated when presented with food. After Pavlov began ringing a bell and then presenting the dogs with food, the dog began to salivate at the ringing of a bell. Emotional responses are likely to be learned through classical conditioning (McGraw Hill, 2011). An example is the research done with “Little Albert.” Experimenters made a loud noise behind the child while showing him a rat. The child began to associate the frightening sound with the rat and began to fear rats. Classical conditioned learning happens throughout a person’s lifespan. Another type of conditioning is instrumental. In instrumental conditioning, there is a relationship between behavior and reinforcement (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2009). In instrumental conditioning, the behavior is present before the reinforcement. An example of instrumental conditioning is rewarding a child for good behavior. The child only gets the reward if his or her behavior is instrumental for the reward. Conditioning can be positive or negative learning.

Relationship between Learning and Cognition

However, conditioning does not explain learning such as reading. Theorists deduced that learning also involves the cognitive processes. The cognitive processes include thinking, knowing, remembering, forming mental representations, and problem solving (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). Cognitive theorists believe that one must first understand these processes in order to have a more comprehensive view of learning. Not all learning takes place with conditioning (McGraw Hill, 2011). Learning activities such as driving a car use the cognitive processes. These types of activities are more than conditioning; thought processes are used to carry out the activity. Cognitive theorists developed approaches focused on the mental processes rather than on external stimuli, reinforcements, and responses (McGraw Hill, 2011).

Conclusion

By studying the relatively permanent behavior change, a theorist has his or her subject matter to understand learning. Theorists use two psychological paradigms, classical and instrumental conditioning, to demonstrate the association between cognition and learning. The relationship between cognition and learning is important and both components are required to fully understand learning. Learning without cognition is only potential. Cognition without learning is only reflex and instinct.

References

McGraw Hill (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NV: Author.

Olson, M. H., & Hergenhahn, B. R. (2009). An introduction to theories of learning (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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The Senior Citizen in Late Adulthood

The Senior Citizen in Late Adulthood

The most rapidly growing age group in the United States is the elderly, or those individuals age sixty-five and older (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). This period of development is known as late adulthood. Significant physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional developmental processes occur during this stage (McGraw Hill, 2011). In order to understand the changes in late adulthood, I interviewed an eighty year old female who I will call the participant when referring to her. The participant was married in 1950 and had two sons, one born in 1954 and the second in 1955. The participant became a widow after fifty-four years of marriage. She was willing to discuss her early adulthood as well as her late adulthood with me.

Notable and Surprising Aspects of Interview

The participant was willing to discuss any topic about adulthood with me, even adding additional information to some questions. The general assumption in the past was that older adults are forgetful and confused. Gerontologists now have research to the contrary (McGraw Hill, 2011). During my interview with the participant, I noticed that she remembered generally more information from the past than one usually would think. The participant admitted during the interview that she sometimes calls people by the wrong name. However, she said that this was a characteristic that she has always possessed. Another view that generally has been accepted is that older adults become physically, psychologically, and socially withdrawn. This is known as the disengagement theory of aging (McGraw Hill, 2011). However, through my interview with the participant, I did not see this theory as true. The participant still participates in physical activities as well as social activities. The participant still works full - time hours as a customer service manager at Walmart. She is on her feet for eight or more hours a day approximately five days a week. She relays that her job helps her to remain active. Many of the elderly are placed in a retirement or nursing home. The participant still lives at home; the same home her husband built for her over sixty years ago. The participant also primarily drives herself around. This fact means that she still has good vision as well as mental ability.

Overall Functioning of Participant

Gerontologists John Rowe and Robert Kahn proposed the concept of successful aging in 1998 (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). An individual is considered to successfully have aged if he or she effectively integrates his or her level of functioning in the three areas of development: physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional. After listening to the participant relay events from her past and present, I believe her to have successfully aged. She remains physically active, engages in mentally stimulating activities, and has an active social support system. The participant stated in the interview that she enjoyed walking in her early adulthood as well as now. She also stated that her health was in good condition. According to Wood, Wood, and Boyd, the elderly are “enjoying life in relatively good health” (2011, p. 325). The participant enjoys reading and crossword puzzles. Researchers believe that individuals who keep mentally and physically active tend to retain his or her mental skills in late adulthood (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). Filial responsibility is the obligation an adult child believes he or she should take care of his or her parents (Berger, 2011). The participant stated that her children help her by doing things for her and particularly helping with the upkeep of her home. I believe that this type of relationship with her children benefits the participant in several aspects of her life. According to Berger, emotional support from children is often more crucial than financial support (2011). Based upon the information provided by the participant, I believe she receives emotional support from her children; this in turn benefits her aging. The participant also stated in the interview that many of her children’s friends consider her to be a mother figure for him or her. In turn, these relationships aid her aging process. She not only has her biological children to help her with tasks, but she also has her children’s friends to help her. The most successful elderly are those who maintain the same interests and activities from middle adulthood. This is called the activity theory of aging (McGraw Hill, 2011).  The participant still enjoys the same activities now as she did in middle adulthood. She stated that during both stages she enjoyed activities such as walking, reading, attending cook outs, playing Bingo, and playing cards.  

Conclusion

The process by which a person examines and evaluates his or her life is called life review (McGraw Hill, 2011). When I asked the participant about what she believed gave life meaning, I think she somewhat went through this process. She had to examine and evaluate her own life. She came to the conclusion that the most meaningful moments in her life dealt with her interactions with loved ones. She is happy and satisfied being surrounded by family and friends. Several years ago, it was believed that late adulthood was a period of inactivity, physical, and mental decline (McGraw Hill, 2011). Gerontologists believe that the elderly are capable of active and healthy lives. The stereotype of old age is quickly vanishing.  As evidenced in my interview with the participant, it is possible for a person in his or her late adulthood to enjoy the same interests as in middle adulthood. It is also possible for him or her to have very good physical health, retain his or her cognitive health, and an outgoing social circle. Because of these three events, a person can have aged successfully.

References

Berger, K. S. (2011). The developing person through the life span (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

McGraw Hill (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: Author.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). the world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc/Allyn and Bacon.

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Middle Childhood and Adolescence

Middle Childhood and Adolescence Development

{A collaboration between M. Lewis, C. Swarmer, A. Lancaster, K. Hoffman, and T. Cross}

     During the time of adolescence there are many stages that affect middle childhood. There are positive and negative consequences of the different development choices during this time frame of life.

     Essential changes in peer relationships middle childhood are ability to have a healthy relation of social skills with their peers (Berger, 2011).  In addition, as middle childhood this group often socialize within their same sex types.  Relationships between peers develop in social settings and within background, environments, and like mind ability to interactions for positive developmental skills.  In most of these settings within a child early stage of childhood these are usually important steps in becoming close with his or her peers, and leading to building friendships, which begin a path well into early adulthood at this age are easily influence.  In this influence a child with a healthier family base are less likely to become influence into unhealthy behavior patterns versus those who grow up in neglect households.  Early childhood self-esteem level varies from older generations most area base on material possession rather than personal connections. 

     Therefore, the changes begin to show itself more as middle childhood relations with their peers about impress one another with things or perhaps image to fit in with peers. This seem in compares to the developmental stage of Erikson.   In addition, they begin to compare what they have in common for example, clothes, tennis shoes, and toys, technical devices like Wii or play stations.  As adolescent developmental stages, changes kick in the identifying of puberty, sexual identity, become important, and with this age group peer-pressure become inevitable.  The use of drugs, alcohol, and sex forced topics on some to become a part of groups this stems in peer-pressure (Berger, 2001).  Middle childhood changes show what they can do better than a friend can, and too versus an adolescence changes reflect inward into which they are and a part of crowds to become popular among their peers (Berger, 2001).    Adolescents can take on a job the marks their beginning place in society; this becomes a part of adolescence individuality.  In addition, other importance at this stage stems into early adulthood, and lead to education as well as their beginning their own family.  

       Egocentrism is different in each person. Egocentrism does start at childhood and goes into when a child hits the adolescence stage of life. Egocentrism is when a thought and problems are based by one’s thinking and by the examination of themselves. Egocentrism helps the child to develop a clear and consistent identity. During this time, the child will lead to self-absorption, which helps to find their identity and to help their decision-making. There are two components during egocentrism. The two components are imaginary audience and the personal fable. The imaginary audience is the person that is thinking about him or herself and thinking about the thoughts of other people.

     Personal fable complements the imaginary audience. The person in the personal fable starts to consumes how adolescences act, dress, and how special that they can be. During this, many people start to exaggerate on what they believe. During this stage, this is where the children take big risk such as unprotected sex, taking drugs, drinking while driving, and so on. During this stage, this is when many people believe that it will not happen to them.

     During adolescence, psychosocial changes are also experienced along with physical and mental development (Kiran-Esen, 2012). Adolescents become more independent from their parents and desire to spend more time with peers. A primary experience during this time of development is joining a peer group. These peers become a source of influence and support (Kiran-Esen, 2012). Peer pressure can be defined as “the encouragement to conform to one’s friends or contemporaries in behavior, dress and attitude” (Berger, 2011, p. 442). Peer pressure is commonly considered negative; however, it can be positive as well. Peer pressure can come in the form of joining sports or studying as well as it can be trying drugs or breaking the law. Adolescents are more likely to conform to peer standards than children do (Santrock, 2010). Around the eighth or ninth grades, adolescents are more likely to conform to peers, especially to the antisocial standards.

     Adolescents organize themselves in different ways. These types of peer groups have a more important role in adolescents than children (Santrock, 2010). Cliques are one type of peer group. Cliques are close friends, loyal to one another, exclude outsiders, and are usually the same sex and age. Crowds are another type of peer group. These are larger groups; they have something in common, and are not necessarily friends (Berger, 2011). Crowds identify with a common identity such as ethnicity or interests. Both types of peer groups provide social control and social support by comments, exclusion, and admiration.

     Adolescents use selection and facilitation to form peer relationships. Adolescents choose his or her friends; not always wisely but never randomly (Berger, 2011). Adolescents choose a clique based on values and interests. Past relationships may be abandoned if they do not follow the same clique. Adolescents facilitate destructive and constructive behaviors (Berger, 2011). The facilitation process helps adolescents act in ways they would not act on their own.

     The way peers think influences adolescents more than what they do. Adolescents have a desire for immediate reward and are more influenced by the presence of peers therefore, taking more risks when in the presence of peers (O'Brien, Albert, Chein, & Steinberg, 2011). Adolescents uncertain about his or her social identity, such as low self-esteem and high social anxiety, are more likely to conform to peers. Adolescents are also more likely to conform to peers when around someone perceived to have a higher status.

     Between the ages of 10 and 25 drug experimenting starts and is the leading cause of the high rate of adolescent dropouts. Adolescents are the most curious and most vulnerable human beings. They tend to experiment with drugs because of peer pressure and the because of growing pains adolescents face. Adolescents are hormonal and immature. This makes experimenting with drugs during adolescents hazardous. Drugs offer satisfying sensations that are “fun” for the immature mind of adolescents. Adolescents are not aware that they are not invincible and do not perceive that drugs are harmful.

     Cigarettes, alcohol, prescription medicines, fumes from aerosol containers, cleaning fluid, and even markers are used to produce the warranted sensations adolescents are searching for from using drugs. These types of drugs are assessable to youth because they can buy them at a local store or in his or her parents’ medicine cabinet. Other drug use involves illegal drugs like marijuana, cocaine, and heroin. However, in most cases youth retreat from drug use by the age of 18.

     Gender differences pertaining to drug experimenting are reinforced by social constructions about proper male and female behavior (Berger, 2008). Studies of American high school children yield that adolescent boys use more drugs preferably cigarettes more often than girls do. Studies have found that cigarettes are most accessible and seem to be less harmful. However, tobacco impairs digestion and nutrition, and slows down growth in adolescents. Girls tend to start drinking alcohol at a younger age than boys start to use cigarettes. Drinking at an early age leads to abuse and impairs memory and self-control by damaging the hippocampus and the prefrontal cortex, perhaps distorting the reward circuits of the brain (Berger, 2008).

     Drug use in adolescents can be detrimental. Drug use can lead to addiction, brain damage, and the lack of brain maturation more pronounced in adolescents than in adults. Drug use can also lead to internal organ damage because organs continue to mature and drug-using teenagers who appear full-grown may damage their developing hearts, lungs, and reproductive systems (Berger, 2008). Studies show that the experimenting phase leads to abuse and eventually an addiction to drugs that has to be fulfilled to avoid believing that he or she is ill.

       Adolescence is a time where a child's body is drastically changing. Some adolescents begin puberty around age ten, which is considered young. These individuals face many pressures when it comes to dating, sexual issues, and changes within family relationships for a few reasons. First, an adolescent is faced with the pressure of dating once they begin being seen as a growing adult. As a girl begins to grow breasts she is faced with being teased by her classmates and hiding herself because of embarrassment. When an adolescent's body changes early, they often date people older than them because they are both more mature, physically and mentally, than those that are the same age. Second, as the maturing child begins to date, they are pressured into sexual relationships that are sexually active. This can put the individual at risk for many things they are still too young to prepare for, such as pregnancy and sexually transmitted disease. Once a child begins dating and becomes sexually active due to increased pressure, there can easily be a noticeable change within the family relationships. Adolescents become egocentric during puberty because of the maturing of the brain which increases their level of self-consciousness (Berger, 2011). The brain maturation also causes young individuals to act out, become more selfish and concerned of their own feelings, as well as experiment with drugs and alcohol. These acts and changes in behavior can drastically affect the parent-child relationship in a negative way. Parents and children often fight, the child refuses to listen and does what they want, and the parent then punishes the child for acting out. Adolescence is different among each individual, as every person develops at different rates and in different ways. The pressures associated with dating, sex, and family relationships during this time can be difficult for a child because it is such a drastic change all at once that it is difficult to handle.

     There are many stages that have affected middle childhood but yet it seems that each and every one of us gets through it. We have learned about the different development choices that go on during this stage of life and also about adolescent egocentrism and the different types of pressure that is going on in middle childhood.

                                                                                          

References

Berger, K. S. (2011). The developing person through the life span (8th ed.). New York,       New York: Worth Publishers.

Elkind, D. (1967). Egocentrism in Adolescence. Child Development , 38, 1025-1034.

Kiran-Esen, B. (2012). Analyzing Peer Pressure and Self - Effiacy Expectations Among Adolescents. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal , 40 (8), 1301-1309.

O'Brien, L., Albert, D., Chein, J., & Steinberg, L. (2011). Adolescents Prefer More Immediate Awards when in the Prescence of their Peers. Journal of Research on Adolescence (Blackwell Publishing Limited) , 21 (4), 747-753.

Santrock, J. W. (2010). Children (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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Infancy and Early Childhood

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Infancy and Early Childhood

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Life Span Development

Life Span Development

Developmental psychology studies patterns of growth and change over the course of a person’s life (McGraw-Hill, 2010). Psychologists have been developing theories to explain these patterns. Theories are important in developmental psychology for many reasons. Theories produce hypotheses, generate discoveries, and offer practical guidance (Berger, 2011). Theories in developmental psychology help psychologists understand how and why changes occur throughout the span of a person’s life.

Life Span Perspective of Development

Developmental psychologists developed the life span perspective. They believed that developmental changes occurred throughout the entire span of life (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). Some developmental psychologists say that development occurs in stages while others do not. Urie Brenfenbrenner developed the ecological – systems approach in life span development (Berger, 2011). This approach examines all the systems around a person. This approach takes in account systems such as family, peers, school and social conditions. From this approach developmentalists take all contexts into account when studying a person’s development. Cultures each have beliefs and habits unique to them. Learning these beliefs and habits is a part of a person’s development. Some characteristics can be molded yet durable. Characteristics can be changed. Developmental psychologists spend time studying ages and stages of a person’s development. From these studies, different theories have been developed to explain human development. 

Theories of Life Span Development

Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory

Sigmund Freud developed the psychoanalytic theory. His theory was centered on a person’s unconscious drives. Freud introduced the psychosexual stages, stating that development was characterized by sexual interest and pleasure centered on a certain body part (Berger, 2011). His theories on infantile sexuality is one reason his theories met resistance. In infancy, a human experiences the oral stage centered on the mouth. In early childhood, the anal stage is experienced and centered on the anus. The phallic stage develops during the preschool years and centers on the penis. According to Freud, there are two stages following the phallic: latency and genital. According to Freudian psychoanalysts, personality patterns are determined by how a person experienced and reacted to these stages (Berger, 2011). Since Freud did not believe that new stages developed during adulthood, he concluded that personalities were influenced by a person’s earlier stages. Unconscious conflicts such as smoking or attraction to an older person may be caused by problems reacting to a childhood stage (Berger, 2011).

Freud also had a stage theory for the development of personality. The three parts are the id, superego and ego. The id is developed during infancy. According to Freud, the id includes a person’s unconscious thoughts. The pleasure principle works within the id (McGraw-Hill, 2010). The superego develops during the phallic stage. The conscience forms during this stage and traits are learned from parents and society. The final stage is the ego, formed during adulthood. This part of personality includes the conscious self. The reality principle works with the ego. Defense mechanisms are used in the ego in order to control the id and the superego (Berger, 2011).  While some psychologists, like Freud, use stages to explain development, others do not.

Behaviorism

            Psychologists subscribing to the behaviorism theories of development rejected the psychoanalytic theories. Behaviorism studies observable behavior and can also be called learning theories (Berger, 2011). Behaviorists did not subscribe to the stage theory or the unconscious theories. John Watson believed developmental psychologists should study only what they could see: observable behavior (Berger, 2011). He believed that irrational thoughts and hidden urges the psychoanalysts used in theories were not easily measured in developmental psychology. The behaviorist theories described the laws and processes by which a person learned. The most common process was by conditioning, or the way responses were linked to stimuli. The two most popular forms of conditioning were classical and operant.

            Ivan Pavlov performed the most popular experiment in classical conditioning. His study revealed the link between a stimulus and a response. In his study a stimulus is connected with a neutral stimulus, which had no meaning before. B.F. Skinner felt that classical conditioning explained some behavior. He performed operant conditioning research. In this conditioning, an action was followed by a reward or punishment. If a reward was given, it was more likely that the action would be repeated. However, if a punishment was received, it was more likely the action would not be repeated.

Effects of Heredity and Environment

Both heredity and environment influence the behavior of a person. The genetics that a person inherits may play a role on the way his or her brain functions in relation to behavior. A person’s outside influences may also play a role in how a person behaves. While some psychologists believe that either heredity or environment has the largest impact on behavior, there is a third group that have an interactionist view (McGraw-Hill, 2010). This view states that both factors play an equal role in behavior. Based on heredity, each person has a certain potential. However, based on environment, each person depends on outside influences in order to reach that potential. It is important for developmental psychologists to study both heredity and environment to understand how each factor influences a person’s behavior.

Conclusion

A person begins developing during the fetal stage before birth and continues developing until death (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). Because of this view in developmental psychology,                                                               the expression “from womb to tomb” was coined. A person develops physically, cognitively and socially through the different stages in life. A person’s genetics influences his or her physical changes, cognitive changes as well as behavioral changes. A person’s environment influences his or her behavioral changes and is important in helping them achieve his or her genetic potential.

References

Berger, K. S. (2011). The developing person through the life span (8th ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers.

McGraw-Hill (2010). Psychsmart. New York, NY: Author.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/ Allyn & Bacon.

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Language

Language

How a person communicates is a complex mental process. Grammar is used in this process. Grammar is defined as “the system of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed” (McGraw-Hill, 2011 p.174). Most people acquire the basics of communication without being aware. The process of language begins in infancy and progresses throughout the early years. The complexity of communication, as well as the cognitive processes involved in the development and use of language, is an important topic in cognitive psychology.

Language and Lexicon

Language is a method of communicating thoughts and feelings. Communicating through language is by a system of symbols, usually sounds, signs or written symbols, arranged according to rules of grammar (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). In order to understand the structure and rules of language, researchers study psycholinguistics. Psycholinguistics is the study of how language is “acquired, produced and used” (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011 p.230). Lexicon is also important to a person’s use of language. Lexicon is a mental dictionary of language (Willingham, 2007). The lexicon contains several representations of known words. These representations include pronunciation, spelling and part of speech. The lexicon aids a person in the matching process of a spoken word and its meaning.

Key Features of Language

Language is complex but has key characteristics (Williamson, 2009). Language has systematicity. This means that language has a regular, orderly method of communicating ideas, thoughts and emotions. Language is governed by rules. Language is structure dependent. There is a patterned structure as to how language is produced. Displacement is found in language (Williamson, 2009). Displacement allows a person to think of and communicate about something or someone that is not present. These characteristics can be found in all the languages of the world and make all languages similar.

Levels of Language Structure

There are four levels of language structure. These four levels are phonemes, morphemes, syntax and semantics. Phonemes are the smallest units of spoken language. These are sounds used to form words. Among the world’s languages, more than eight hundred phonemes have been identified (McGraw-Hill, 2011). However, only around fifty-two phonemes are used in the English language. Phonemes do not provide meaning; morphemes do. Morphemes are comprised of two or more phonemes (Wood, Wood,  & Boyd, 2011). There are exceptions to this in the English language such as the words I and a. Morphemes are the words of a language. Morphemes can be singular or plural. Two morphemes can be combined to create words. The next level of language is syntax. In this level, sentences and phrases are formed. Each language has its own rules of how sentences are formed. In English, the adjective comes before the noun. However, in Spanish the noun comes before the adjective. Semantics is the fourth level of language. In this level, meaning is derived from words and sentences. This is commonly referred to as text. The rules of semantics allow a person to use words to express his or her thoughts (McGraw-Hill, 2011). 

Language Processing

Language comprehension precedes language production (McGraw-Hill, 2011). Language processing begins around three months old. At this time a baby begins to babble. Babbling is meaningless, speech like sounds and lasts until usually a year old. Researchers say that babies that babies can produce the sounds found in all languages as well as can distinguish among all the known phonemes (McGraw-Hill, 2011). As the babbling stage advances, the infant begins to sound more like the language spoken in their environment. The infant’s ability to recognize all the phonemes also decreases. Neurons in the brain reorganize to respond only to the specific phonemes routinely heard therefore specializing in their own language. Some studies show that if a child is isolated from communications have a difficulty learning the language. This deficit is difficult to overcome (McGraw-Hill, 2011). After age one, children stop producing sounds not in their language and learn the more complicated forms of language. A child’s vocabulary increases and they speak in telegraphic speech. Telegraphic speech is sentences where words not critical to the message are left out (McGraw-Hill, 2011). There are several reasons as to why language processing becomes difficult. One is differences in phonemes. This reason makes it difficult for a person to learn a different language. Word perception is another reason language processing is difficult. Words can be taken in different contexts. 

Language Acquisition Theories

There are three main theories of language acquisition (McGraw-Hill, 2011). The first of these is the Learning Theory. This theory suggests that language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning. However, this theory does not explain how children learn language without being reinforced or conditioned.  The second theory is the Nativist Theory. This theory states that a genetically determined, innate mechanism directs language acquisition. This means that a person has a natural instinct to learn language. Noam Chomsky developed the theory of universal grammar (McGraw-Hill, 2011). He believed that all the world’s languages share a common underlying structure. Chomsky also developed the theory that a person has a language-acquisition device (McGraw-Hill, 2011). This device was in the neural system of the brain. Neuroscientists have concluded that the ability to use language is tied to neurological developments (McGraw-Hill, 2011).  The third theory was the Interactionist theory. This theory states that language is developed through genetically predisposition and environment. The interactionist theory can be supported by research done on children who were isolated from language. These children have the genetic predisposition to learn language, but lack the environmental cues to aid their learning.

Conclusion

In conclusion, language is a complex process. Language acquisition begins soon after birth and continues well into childhood. Language processing is done through the learning of the levels of structure. It is believed that all languages have some similar characteristics. Cognitive psychologists research to understand the process of language and the structure of language. In fact, psychologists have devoted considerable time to the study of language (McGraw-Hill, 2011). Language is an important process in humans.

References

McGraw-Hill (2011). Psychsmart. New York, NY: Author.

Williamson, G. (2009). Key Properties of Language. Retrieved from http://www.speech-therapy-information-and-resources.com/key-properties-of-language.html

Willingham, D. T. (2007). Cognition: the thinking animal (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). the world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn & Bacon.

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