Improving Organization Retention

Improving Organization Retention

     Retention is a critical element to organizations (Hausknecht, Rodda,  & Howard, 2009). An organization desires to retain employees who have high job performance. At times, work motivation theories are used to aid organizations in their retention plans. Elements such as job satisfaction, occupational stressors, and counterproductive behavior may affect the performance and retention of employees. This paper will examine the problems in JC’s Casino and offer suggestions using work motivation theories and other psychological principles to improve the retention rate.  

Work Motivation Theories

Reinforcement Theory

     Reinforcement theory states that behavior is a result of rewards. The major premise of the reinforcement theory is the law of effect (Spector, 2012). This means that the probability of an increase of a behavior is higher if followed by a reward. Likewise, the probability of a decrease of behavior if followed by a punishment is higher. Rewards are the result of a behavior occurring; therefore, in industrial and organizational psychology, the reward must result from performance (Rue & Byars, 2007). Rewards can be tangible and given by the organization, such as money, or intangible, such as praise. Intangible rewards can also be a product of the behavior itself such as a sense of accomplishment for completing the task. Rewards are an effective method to enhance the job performance of employees. A large component of the reinforcement theory is incentive systems. In incentive systems, an employee is paid for the level of their individual productivity. The principles of the reinforcement theory are used to influence the employee’s behavior such as absence and tardiness. In order to effectively work in an organization, all employees should be rewarded on their performance. Employees should not be rewarded the same. Also, the employee should be told what to do in order to be reinforced, the employee should be told what they are doing wrong, and reprimands should not be done in front of others (Rue & Byars, 2007). 

Reinforcement theory at JC’s Casino. At JC’s Casino, the housekeepers are not being rewarded on their performance. The result of this is tardiness, absence, poor performance, and ultimately, turnover. There should be an incentive system set up for the housekeepers to reward them for performance. Reinforcements can consist of monetary raises, gift cards, and services offered by the casino. By rewarding the housekeepers, they will become to feel appreciated and valued as employees. In turn, this will decrease absence, tardiness, and turnover. 

Justice Theory

     Justice theories focus on fair treatment by the organization (Spector, 2012). Fair treatment is believed to be the motivator in organizational relationships. The Equity Theory is the most common justice theory. The Equity Theory is based on the assumption that people want to be treated fairly in relationships and are motivated to reach such fairness. Inequity, the perception that one’s inputs and outcomes to be less than the inputs and outcomes of other employees, is the result of the Equity Theory. The feeling of inequity can cause a divide in an organization. In order to reduce inequity, an employee may do several things to alleviate the feeling. For example, the employee may increase inputs or quit. 

Justice Theory at JC's Casino. The housekeepers as well as the floor dealers are feeling inequity. The housekeepers are pushed to work more without the recognition of what they have done. The inputs of each housekeeper should have an equal outcome. This will have the ones who are working to standard and keeping with attendance policy to continue to do as such. The housekeepers who do not have a good job performance and attendance record should have outcomes equal as such. Housekeepers will be more willing to perform when the outcomes are equal to the inputs. Otherwise, the housekeepers will continue to be resentful towards the job. The floor dealers are unhappy with the pit boss. According to the exit interviews, the dealers feel that he is toxic, overbearing, evil, and incompetent. The HR director needs to confront the pit boss, even though he is the owner’s step son. The dealers will not feel as though they are valued employees as long as he is allowed to behave this way. The compensation seems to be good since it is better than the competition. The attitude of the pit boss is affecting the retention of dealers. 

Occupational Stressors and Alleviations

            A job stressor is a condition or situation at work that requires a response from the employee (Spector, 2012). Examples of possible job stressors include being reprimanded,          lack of time, and hearing of the possibility of firing. The most common job stressors are conflicts and heavy workloads. Role ambiguity is where employees are uncertain of job functions and responsibilities. This can be caused by the failure of supervisors to provide guidelines and directions for the job. Role conflict is when employees experience incompatible demands at work or between work and home. These demands can be receiving incompatible directions at work or when the demands of family interfere with work. Workloads can be a job stressor depending on the amount of work or the difficulty of work. Other stressors can be social such as interpersonal conflicts at work, organizational politics (where co-workers and supervisors put own interests above the organization), or control (the extent employees make decisions about work). 

Alleviating Stressors at JC's Casino. The main stressor of the housekeeping staff is the lack of reliable staffing. The lack of staffing is putting a strain on other departments, mainly the administrative department who have been filling in as housekeepers. More housekeeping staff should be hired and trained. Reinforcement for job performance should be established to retain housekeepers and reduce the workload. The floor dealers also have job stress in the form of social stress. There is an obvious conflict between the pit boss and the floor dealers. This conflict should be reduced in order for the floor to run smoothly and to reduce turnover. 

Job Satisfaction and its Effect on Retention

     Job satisfaction is a person’s attitude towards his or her job. Turnover has been connected to job satisfaction; dissatisfied employees are more likely to quit. There are five major components to job satisfaction. These include attitude toward work group, general working conditions, attitude towards organization, monetary benefits, and attitude toward supervision (Rue & Byars, 2007). An individual’s attitude toward the work itself and life in general may also impact job satisfaction. It is a common belief that a satisfied worker is a happy worker. However, research disproves that the belief is always accurate (Rue & Byars, 2007). There is moderate research that performance causes satisfaction. This research concludes that rewards are more of a cause of satisfaction than performance and that rewards based on current performance can result in subsequent performance. While research does not completely prove that a satisfied employee is a happy employee, it does prove that an employee who like the job, supervisors, and other employment factors, are likely to be more loyal and dedicated. If an employee does not like the job, supervisor, or other employment factors, then they may quit or become disgruntled. This may lead to absence, tardiness, or disruptiveness at work. 

Job satisfaction at JC's Casino. The employees at JC’s Casino have very little job satisfaction. The housekeepers need training, more staff, and reinforcement for performance. This should reduce the absence and turnover. The issue of the pit boss and comments made in exit interviews has not been adequately addressed. The HR director is afraid to confront the owner about his step son even though the step son is the primary concern on the floor. The HR director needs to have adequate training for employees and reinforcement plans in effect. The HR director should fully understand the importance of retention and the full responsibilities of each job. 

Counterproductive Behavior

     Counterproductive behavior is meant to bring or intended to bring harm to an organization; examples of this behavior are verbal, psychological and physical violence, unsafe work practices, alcohol and drug abuse, theft, and destruction of property (Yang, 2008). Counterproductive behaviors may also include absence and tardiness. These behaviors are detrimental to the organization. Employees who have quit usually have exhibited these behaviors prior to quitting. 

Counterproductive behavior at JC's Casino. There are numerous counterproductive behaviors at JC’s Casino. The housekeepers are tardy and absent frequently. These behaviors affect not only the housekeeping department but other departments as well. The administrative department is having to clean rooms to compensate for the fact the housekeepers are not. The hotel changed check in policies, thus causing the need for a luggage room and luggage room attendant. Housekeeping needs training, reinforcements, and less of a workload. The pit boss is creating a hostile work environment in the way he treats the floor dealers. The pit boss needs training in how to perform his job and proper etiquette for communicating with subordinates. 

Conclusion

      Work motivation theories can help organizations in managing the job performance of employees. Job satisfaction, reinforcements, equity, and stress alleviation can help organizations in managing retention. JC’s Casino presented with problems with the floor dealers and housekeeping departments. Using work motivation theories and industrial and organizational psychological principles, suggestions were made to help the organization maintain employee job performance and retention.

References

Hausknecht, J. P., Rodda, J., & Howard, M. J. (2009). Targeted employee retention: Performance - based and job - related differences in reported reasons for staying. Human Resource Management, 48(2), 269-288.

Rue, L. W., & Byars, L. L. (2007). Management: Skills and application (12th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw - Hill.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Yang, J. (2008). Can't serve customers right? An indirect effect of co-worker's counterproductive behavior in the service environment. Journal of Occupational and Organzational Psychology, 81(1), 29-46. doi:10.1348/096317907x203742

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Psychological Testing in the Workplace

Psychological Testing in the Workplace

     In public and private sector jobs, a prospective applicant is screened and assessed by different selection methods. These methods consist of resume review, one or more interviews, and psychological tests. Psychological tests are used to assess characteristics such as knowledge, skills, abilities, attitudes, interests, and personality in prospective employees (Spector, 2012). Organizations use psychological tests to select and retain employees. Testing is used to match an individual’s capacities and characteristics to a job within an organization. Validity, reliability, and ethical concerns have been raised concerning testing. 

 Types of Psychological Tests

     Psychological tests are a standardized series of problems or questions assessing an individual’s characteristics (Spector, 2012). Psychological tests are made up of several items which assesses the characteristic of interest. The items are usually quickly completed which allows for several characteristics to be assessed. Psychological tests may be administered in several methods including written, computerized, or performance. 

Personality Tests

     Personality testing is valuable as a pre-employment assessment tool (Goffin & Boyd, 2009). The field of Industrial and Organizational psychology has experienced an increase of interest in using personality assessments. Personality tests are frequently used to study the different aspects of an individual’s behavior in organizations (Spector, 2012). Organizations use personality tests to predict job performance. While there are other methods of pre – employment testing equal to exceeding personality testing, this type of testing is more likely to predict a variance in performance.

Emotional Intelligence Testing

     Emotional intelligence is becoming recognized as being important for a successful professional career. Emotional intelligence is between a personality trait and cognitive behavior (Spector, 2012). Emotional intelligence is associated with several skills required in organizations. These skills include organizational commitment, public speaking, teamwork, and leadership (Nicholls, Wegener, Bay,  & Cook, 2012). Emotional intelligence has several definitions. Emotional intelligence is the ability an individual has to control and recognize emotions in the self and others. Emotional intelligence can also be defined based upon the approach. These differences have led to a difference in assessment methods. The trait approach defines emotional intelligence as a set of characteristics relating to social and emotional well being. Trait approach tests are similar to personality tests and rely on self – report measures. Ability approach defines emotional intelligence as a specific set of cognitive abilities. The ability approach tests use problem – based measures to test emotional intelligence for maximal performance. 

Integrity Tests

     Integrity tests have been found to be effective predictors of counterproductive behaviors (Fine, 2013). These behaviors consist of cheating, sabotage, and theft as well as absence and turnover. There are two types of integrity tests: overt and personality based. Overt tests assess an individual’s opinions toward counterproductive behaviors and prior behaviors. Personality – based tests assess personal character traits related to counterproductive behaviors. 

Differentiation Between Testing for Pre - Employment and Retention

     Psychological tests are used in pre – employment selection processes. However, psychological tests may also be used for existing employees. Organizations can use testing for current employees as developmental exercises or as part of a job performance evaluation. Personality tests are widely used for employee selection, development, and advancement. Emotional intelligence tests are primarily used in employee selection and less often in retention. Integrity tests can be used in employee selection and less commonly as an employee retention practice. Organizations hope that psychological tests help in the selecting of the right employees meaning a higher retention rate (Spector, 2012). When psychological testing is used in employee retention, the organization and employee can identify strengths, weaknesses, and change in performance (Spector, 2012). 

Validity and Reliability Issues of Psychological Testing

     A useful test is reliable and valid. A test is reliable if it works the same each time it is given. A test is valid if it measures what it is meant to measure. Some tests are more reliable than other tests (Spector, 2012). Tests with multiple items are usually more reliable than single item tests. Single item measures can be unreliable if the test taker misreads or misinterprets any item (Spector, 2012).

The main concern with personality testing is faking. When a test – taker fakes on a personality test, he or she deliberately provides inaccurate responses to items. Faking is done in hopes of making oneself look more favorable and be hired. In regards to validity, if all respondents shifted equally there is no effect. However, if some test – takers report honestly and others falsify the answers, then the validity of the test suffers (Costa, 1996). Some research shows that faking answers does not affect the validity of the test.

     Emotional intelligence tests also are subject to faking. The trait approach measures are more likely to be manipulated by the test taker. Emotional intelligence tests use two validity checks. Trait approach models use Inconsistency Index for Validity. There are ten paired questions and the difference between responses for each pair determines consistency. The second validity check is the Positive Impression Scale. This scale is designed to eliminate faking.

Integrity tests are better predictors for absence and job performance than theft. Accurate data on employee theft is more difficult to obtain because many employees are never caught (Spector, 2012). Security prefers overt tests because the nature of items can be corroborated from other sources such as interviews or references. Human resource managers prefer the personality based tests because these tests describe the candidate. The personality based tests are less likely to be faked. 

Ethical Issues of Psychological Testing

     The American Psychological Association has specific standards of conduct (Cates, 1999). Ethical concerns in psychology include competence, integrity, professional and scientific responsibility, respect for people’s rights and dignity, concern for other’s welfare, and social responsibility. Psychologists, including industrial and organizational psychologists must practice within his or her knowledge and respect the privacy of others. More specific ethical concerns are invasion of privacy, inability of organization, confidentiality, and communication of test results (Cates, 1999). Psychological tests should not be biased against culturally disadvantaged groups.

 Conclusion

      Psychological testing is a vital component to hiring and retaining employees. Psychological testing reveals a potential employee’s ability to perform in a job as well as characteristics required for the job. Some prospective employees attempt to falsify answers on psychological testing to appear to be the best candidate for the job. Some fear that this practice will invalidate the tests. However, some research shows that this belief is not true. Psychological testing is an efficient method of selecting employees and in some cases, retaining employees.   

 References

Cates, J. (1999). The art of assessment in psychology: ethics, expertise, and validity. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55(5), 631-641.

Costa, P. T. (1996). Work and personality: Use of the NEO-PI-R in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 45(3), 225-241. doi:10.1111/j.1464-0597.1996.tb00766.x

Fine, S. (2013). Practical Guidelines for ikplementing preemployment integrity tests. Public Personnel Management, 42(2), 281-292. doi:10.1177/0091026023487049

Goffin, R. D., & Boyd, A. C. (2009). Faking and personality assessment in personnel selection: Advancing models of faking. Candian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 50(3), 151-160. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015946

Nicholls, S., Wegener, M., Bay, D., & Cook, G. (2012). Emotional intelligence tests: Potential impacts on the hiring process for accounting students. Accounting Education, 21(1), 75-95. doi:10.1080/09639284.2011.598709

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

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Job Analysis: Firefighter

Job Analysis

     Job analysis is a method for describing jobs. Job analysis can also describe human attributes required to perform jobs. A job analysis has three key elements. First, the procedure should be systematic. Second, the job is broken down into smaller units, or tasks. Third, a written product is a result of the analysis. The purpose of a job analysis is to be used in career development, performance appraisal, job classification, and job description. There are two types of analysis, the job – oriented job analysis and the person - oriented job analysis. A job – oriented job analysis provides information about the nature of tasks. A person – oriented job analysis describes the characteristics an individual should possess to perform the job. A person – oriented job analysis includes knowledge, skill, ability, and other personal characteristics. Performance appraisals are also a key factor in organizational psychology. While performance appraisals can be biased due to human accuracy, they are equally importance in maintaining a satisfactory working organization. 

Functional Job Analysis: Firefighter

Tasks

     Firefighters are specialists that use fire safety, prevention, and elimination techniques to complete work – related tasks (Job Descriptions, 2012). Tasks performed by firefighters include operating equipment, controlling and extinguishing fires, providing first response emergency services, and providing public fire safety education. 

Knowledge

     Knowledge that a firefighter should possess include health and safety, operation and maintenance of firefighting equipment, use of tools such as ax, chisel, crowbar, electric saw, and others, vehicle extrication, and first aid. 

Skills

     Skills a firefighter should possess are problem solving, speaking and communication, organization, and product inspection (Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 2006).

Abilities

     Abilities a firefighter should possess are physical fitness, calm and efficient attitude, discipline, auditory attention, speech recognition, and oral comprehension. 

Work Activities

     Work activities include use of fire combative procedures and rescue techniques, operating equipment, organizing strategies, vehicle extrication, maintaining and cleaning equipment, providing first response emergency services, providing support during disasters, public fire safety education, and training for fitness. 

Work Context

     This job position provides service to others, works in all conditions and climates, is physically demanding, is emotionally demanding, and requires the use of tools. 

Functional Job Analysis (FJA)

     Functional job analysis (FJA) is a method of job analysis that is used to obtain information necessary for developing job – related performance standards (Olson, Fine, Myers, & Jennings, 1981). Through observations and interviews with experts in the field, a description of the job is created. The functional job analysis provides more explicit terminology for understanding how to accomplish objectives and tasks in an organizational setting. The functional job analysis is begun by examining the purpose and goals of the jobs (Olson, Fine, Myers, & Jennings, 1981). After the overall purpose is established, two types of information are gathered. This information includes what gets done and how it gets done. Functional job analysis focuses on the tasks that comprise a job. These tasks are organized into job assignments in order to accomplish the work. The data used in a functional job analysis is obtained from observing the work being done and by interviewing accomplished subject matter experts. In 1938, the United States Department of Labor created the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (DOT). In 1998, the DOT was replaced with the Occupational Information Network (O*NET) (Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 2006). O*NET is a computer based resource for job related information and is more extensive than the DOT (Spector, 2012). 

Evaluation of Reliability and Validity of Functional Job Analysis

     The information contained in a functional job analysis is dependent upon the judgment of people who either do or observe others do a job (Spector, 2012). The functional job analysis is viewed as a relatively effective for its purposes. It is believed that people participating in the functional job analysis are more accurate when rating tasks rather than traits. Functional job analysis ratings provide useful information; however, the ratings cannot be viewed as perfect. Functional job analysis ratings are based on human judgment; therefore, can be biased. 

Evaluation of Performance Appraisal Methods

     Organizations spend time and resources to appraise employees. The importance of appraisals to organizations includes many different reasons. These reasons include administrative decisions, employee development and feedback, and to determine the effectiveness of practices and procedures (Spector, 2012). The job performance of individuals can be assessed and categorized by two methods: Objective Performance Measures and Subjective Judgment Measures. 

Objective Performance Measures

     Objective measures include counts of various behaviors or the results of jobs (Spector, 2012). Examples include days absent from work or total sales for the employee. There are five common measures that are objectively measured. These include absences, accidents, incidents, lateness, and productivity. These five categories reflect the performance of the employee. The measures of attendance and lateness may be grouped together in one category. Objective measures are usually kept in organizational files and are easily accessed. 

Subjective Measures of Job Performance

      Subjective measures are more frequently used than objective measures. However, subjective measures are not as easily accessible as objective measures. Where objective measures are commonly kept in organization files, subjective measures are obtained by having supervisors complete performance rating forms on subordinates. The two common types of rating forms are Graphic Rating Forms and Behavior – Focused Rating Forms. The Graphic Rating Form is the most popular type and is used to assess several dimensions of an employee’s performance. Behavior – Focused Rating Forms focus more on behaviors that an employee has done or is expected to do. 

Benefits and Vulnerabilities of Performance Appraisal Methods

     Objective and subjective measures are useful in employee performance appraisals. Objective measures are easier to interpret in relation to the job performance criteria. Objective measures are quantitative in nature and therefore easier to compare between different employees in the same job. Objective measures can be associated directly to organizational objectives and are often found in the records of the organization. Subjective measures reflect the characteristics, traits, and behaviors of an employee in relation to the job. However, performance appraisal methods also have limitations. Objective measures are not appropriate for all jobs. Objective measures are not always obvious as to what quantity is satisfactory or unsatisfactory. Data included in records could be contaminated, inaccurate, or missing. Objective measures tend to focus on specific behaviors and are sometimes deficient as indicators of job performance criteria (Spector, 2012). In fact, objective measures may ignore other criteria that are just as important. Objective measures of productivity reflect quantity rather than quality. Objective measures counted may not be under the control of the employee. An example is a vehicle accident that is not the employee’s fault. The accident is counted in the quantity of accidents but is not a reflection of the employee’s driving performance. 

Conclusion

      Job analysis and performance appraisals are vital to the successful running of an organization. Job analysis is needed to define the jobs performed within the organization and to hire the best individual for the job. Performance appraisals are needed to ensure that the individuals hired are maintaining the expectations of the job. Together, job analysis and performance appraisals are crucial components for a successful organization.   

References

Dictionary of Occupational Titles. (2006). Firefighter (any industry). Retrieved from http://www.occupationalinfo.org/37/373364010.html

Job Descriptions. (2012). Firefighter Job Description & Career Opportunities. Retrieved from http://www.jobdescriptions.net/professional/firefighter/

Olson, H. C., Fine, S. A., Myers, D. C., & Jennings, M. C. (1981). The Use of Functional Job Analysis in Establishing Performance Standards for Heavy Equipment Operators. Personnel Psychology, 34(2), 351-364.

Spector, P. E. (2012). Industrial and Organizational psychology: Research and practice (6th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Plagiarism: Using someone else's work without giving proper credit, is plagiarism. If you use my work, please reference it.