Introduction to Psychological Testing

Introduction to Psychological Testing

     Psychological tests are important in the field of psychology. Different subfields use different tests in obtaining information. There are several uses of tests in the field of psychology from studying achievement to studying neuropsychological problems. Reliability and validity are vital to tests and have a relationship with each other.  

Definition of Tests

     Tests are a tool used in psychology. Psychological tests are used to “assess personality, maladaptive behavior, development of social skills, intellectual abilities, vocational interests, and cognitive impairment” (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010, p. 71). Psychological tests differ from one another in various ways. These differences include form, degree of objectivity, content, and structure. 

Categories of Tests

     Tests are categorized based on what is being measured. According to Hogan (2007), there are five categories of tests: mental ability tests, achievement tests, personality tests, interests and attitudes tests, and neuropsychological tests. Mental ability tests are meant to measure cognitive functions such as memory, spatial visualization, and creative thinking (Hogan, 2007). Mental ability tests are divided into three categories: individually administered intelligence tests, group administered intelligence tests, and ability tests other than intelligence. Examples of such tests include the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale, the Stanford – Binet Intelligence Scale, and the Otis – Lennon School Ability Test. Achievement tests are used to measure the level of knowledge or skill an individual has in a particular area. Examples of achievement tests include the Stanford Achievement Test, the Metropolitan Achievement Test, the IOWA Tests of Basic Skills, and the Graduate Record Examinations. Achievement tests also include tests for certification and licensing as well as state achievement tests. Personality tests are used to obtain information about an individual’s personality. Personality tests are divided into two subdivisions: objective and projective. Objective personality tests are presented in a true and false or similar format. Objective personality tests can be used to measure personality tests or pathological conditions (Hogan, 2007). Examples of objective personality tests include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Eating Disorder Inventory. Projective personality tests use simple and unstructured tasks to measure for one’s personality (Hogan, 2007). An example of a projective personality test is the Rorschach Inkblot Test. The vocational interests test measures the interests and attitudes of an individual. These tests can also measure the attitude an individual has towards topics, groups, and practices (Hogan, 2007). Examples of a vocational interest test include the Strong Interest Inventory and the Kuder Career Search. Neuropsychological tests are used to obtain information about the functioning of an individual’s central nervous system. Neuropsychological tests use ability and personality tests to obtain information.

Uses and Users of Tests

     There are many uses of tests including clinical, educational, personnel, and research. Clinical psychologists, counselors, school psychologists, and neuropsychologists use tests to help an individual who may have problem (Hogan, 2007). Tests help psychologists to identify the nature and severity of the problem and to provide suggestions on dealing with the problem. Teachers, administrators, and parents use tests in an educational setting. The tests used are usually group administered tests for achievement and ability (Hogan, 2007). Achievement tests are used to determine the level of students’ learning. Tests such as the SAT, ACT, GRE, and LSAT are used to predict success in academics and for college admissions. Businesses and the military use testing for employment and enlistment. The fields of psychology, education, and other social and behavioral sciences use testing in research, Testing can be used in research as the dependent variable, describing samples, and for research on the tests themselves. 

Reliability and Validity in Psychological Testing

     Reliability and validity are important in relation to psychological testing. A test is reliable when nearly the same result occurs when the same test, or an alternative form of the test, is given to the same person (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). A test is valid if it correctly measures what it is supposed to measure. There are three types of reliability in tests: test – retest reliability, internal consistency, and interrater reliability (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Test – retest reliability occurs when the same result is yielded when a test is given to an individual at different times. Internal consistency occurs when an individual has a similar or consistent result on various parts of a test. Interrater reliability occurs when an individual has the same result when the test is administered by different people. There are four types of validity: predictive validity, criterion – related validity, construct validity, and content validity (Sue, Sue, & Sue, 2010). Predictive validity is when a test can predict how an individual will behave or perform. Criterion – related validity determines if a test is related to the phenomenon being studied. Construct validity is when a series of tasks that have a common theme test a certain phenomenon. Content validity is the relationship between the test and the phenomenon being studied. A test can be reliable without being valid. However, a test cannot be valid if it is unreliable. The validity and reliability of a test is necessary for an accurate assessment in psychology.

 Conclusion

      Psychologists and others use tests to obtain information on their clients. This may be the clinical psychologist helping a patient with a problem, a school administrator evaluating the achievement of the students, or an employer hiring new employees. Tests must have reliability in order to be valid, however do not need to be valid in order to be reliable. Depending on the test, tests help psychologists understand intelligence, achievement, ability, personality, neuropsychological problems, and more.    

References

Hogan, T. P. (2007). Psychological testing: A practical introduction (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Sue, D., Sue, D. W., & Sue, S. (2010). Understanding Abnormal Behavior (9th ed.). Boston, MA: Wadsworth.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The World of Psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.

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The Effects of Population Density and Noise

The Effects of Population Density and Noise

     There are a variety of factors that affect an individual. Among these factors are population density and noise. When an individual’s territory, privacy, and personal space is infringed upon, the individual can feel various effects. These effects can range from annoyance to anxiety and anxiety disorders. As population density increases making territory, privacy, and personal space infringed upon, provisions should be made to avoid the effects of crowding causing anxiety and other problems.

Territoriality, Privacy, and Personal Space

     Territoriality is used to describe the link between the environment and behavior of an individual (Edney, 1974). Territoriality is also used to describe the set of behaviors an individual has in response to the physical environment. These behaviors are used exclusively by the individual. Human territoriality is related to the territoriality seen in animals. However, human territoriality is usually not about survival like human territoriality. Humans are known to be territorial over spaces owned or using. When a human feels their space is being infringed, they become protective over such spaces.

     According to Altman (1977), privacy is “the selective control of access to the self, involving dialectic, optimization, and multimodal processes” (p. 67). Privacy does not only refer to an individual alone, but also to the individual’s interactions with others. Privacy is the process where an individual can sometimes make themselves available or unavailable to others (Altman, 1977). Privacy is different for each individual and situation.

     Personal space is the distance an individual chooses to keep between themselves and others. Personal space and territoriality are both used by individuals to maintain privacy. Sommer (1969) defined personal space as “an area with invisible boundaries surrounding a person’s body into which intruders may not come” (p. 26). Personal space is also different for each individual and situation.

  Territoriality, Privacy, and Personal Space as Population Density Increases

     In a study by John Calhoun, rats were used to demonstrate living conditions and population density (Straub, 2007). This study showed that the rats behaved normally while they had sufficient space. As the population increased and space decreased, the social behavior of the rats also decreased. The rats became more territorial and defending the space they considered personal. These studies may not demonstrate a human reaction; however, the studies show that population density does affect populations.

     An effect of population density is crowding. Crowding affects individuals on making them feel confined which leads to reactions of aggression, withdrawal, and inappropriate social interactions. Privacy, personal space, and territoriality should be honored in an effort to decrease crowding. Therefore, these three should be respected as a basic need. Individuals who feel they have lost control of privacy and personal space react negatively. In order for an individual to perceive their space as adequate, a space should be designed to appear bigger than it is (Straub, 2007). This, in turn, will reduce the perception of crowding.     

The Effect of Nature on Individuals in Urban Environments

     Zoos, parks, and other green areas can help individuals have interaction with nature. These interactions aid individuals in obtaining environmental identity that lacks in urban environments. Previous theories stated that natural environments affected the health of individuals. More modern research upholds these theories. A Japanese study reported that green spaces close to residences resulted in lower mortality rates (Clayton & Myers, 2009). Residents of greener environments also had less violence, closer relationships, and more positive social reactions. 

 Noise and its Effects on Individuals

     Health psychologists have conducted studies to learn the relationship between noise and individuals. Stress is a serious condition caused by increased blood levels and cortisol levels (Straub, 2007). Therefore, chronic exposure to noise can lead to cardiovascular disease. Children exposed to noise may not learn as they should. Straub (2007) has also concluded that loud noise affects short – term memory and the ability to perform tasks. The more disturbing the noise, the more it will affect the individual. Noise also affects sleep and may cause anxiety; thus affecting the health of an individual. An individual may be more stressed over a noise they do not have control over. 

 Noise Reduction Strategies

     Two noise reduction strategies are using fabric as a reducer and masking noises. Fabric over windows and as wall décor can help eliminate noise entering from the outside. Stuffed furnishings may also help with this elimination. Insulation within the walls serves as a noise buffer. Covering windows with fabric closely simulates the insulation, by trapping sounds. Carpeting also serves as a noise reducer and is better than hard floors.

     Masking noise with other sounds can also help reduce noise. There are machines that can be purchased to mask sounds. Other simple items such as a fan can also help reduce sounds. This masking is called white noise. While this method does not eliminate the noise, it lowers an individual’s awareness of them.

Conclusion

      Territoriality, privacy, and personal space are personal choices and vary between individuals. The effects on an individual also vary. Studies show that limited space does negatively affect individuals. In urban environments, these effects can be aggression, violence, and poor interactions. Noise can be a simple annoyance or can cause severe health problems. In an effort to reduce the effects of noise, noise reduction strategies are used. Population density and noise affect individuals although differently.

References

Altman, I. (1977). Privacy regulation: culturally universal or culturally specific? Journal of Social Issues, 33(3), 66-84.

Clayton, S., & Myers, G. (2009). Conservation psychology. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

Edney, J. J. (1974). Human territoriality. Psychological Bulletin, 81(12), 959-975. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/h0037444

Sommer, R. (1969). Personal space; the behavioral basis of design. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Straub, R. O. (2007). Health psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth

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Environmental Psychology

Environmental Psychology

     There are many subfields in psychology. One of the newer subfields is environmental psychology. Environmental psychology became recognized in the 1960s around the time the awareness of environmental problems occurred. This awareness helped form a greener environmental psychology (Steg, 2013).

     Environmental psychology involves individuals and the environment around them. Environment in relation to this field of psychology is expanded past an individual’s natural surroundings. Environmental psychology also includes built environments, cultural groups, and social settings (American Psychological Association, 2013). Therefore, environmental psychology is the study of the individual and the environment, both built and natural. Environmental psychology examines the effect of the environment on individuals and vice versa.

     In the 1960s, there was an awareness of environmental problems (Steg, 2013). This awareness brought about studies on issues such as air pollution and urban noise. These studies aided researchers in explaining negative influenced of human behavior on the environment and ultimately trying to change these influences (Steg, 2013). The topics studied expanded in the next decade. The new topics to be studied included energy supply and demand and growing technologies. In the 1980s, studies focused on conservation behaviors. These studies are valuable in learning how individuals affect the environment and brought notice to the subfield of environmental psychology.

     A relatively new subfield of psychology, environmental psychology studies the relationship between individuals and environment. Early awareness and studies of the effects of individuals on environment and vice versa prompted the formation of environmental psychology.   

References

American Psychological Association. (2013). Careers in Psychology. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/careers/resources/guides/careers.aspx?item=2

Steg, L. (2013). Environmental psychology: An introduction. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell.

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