Intelligence Testing Article Analysis

Intelligence Testing Article Analysis

     Intelligence is the “capacity to understand the world, think rationally, and use resources effectively when faced with challenges” (McGraw Hill, 2010, p 178). Early psychologists believed that intelligence was caused by the g-factor and was one-dimensional. Howard Gardener and Robert Sternberg both rejected these theories and created their own multiple intelligences theories. They both developed and tested these theories in order to prove that intelligence was not one single thing. Because of their studies, intelligence tests were developed to test for more than just academic knowledge. 

Gardener's Multiple Intelligence Theory

     Howard Gardener defined intelligence as the ability to find and solve problems and create products of value in one’s culture (Campbell, 1992). He was the first in the field to recognize the diversity of human intelligences. He denied the existence of g-factor in intelligence (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011). He developed his own theory after studying patients with brain damage affecting certain forms of intelligence. Gardener’s theory proposed that there were seven forms of intelligence: musical, kinesthetic, logical – mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. After conducting his studies, Gardener concluded that each of these intelligences is linked to an independent system in the brain. Gardner’s belief was that each person has all seven intelligences but in different degrees. Within his theory, Gardener labeled the units of intelligence with its own abilities which are both measurable and observable (Morgan, 1996). His overall objective was not to develop ways to measure intelligence. Instead, Gardener’s objective was to study the differences in intelligences (Lewis, 2008). Gardener also concluded that these intelligences varied from culture to culture (Campbell, 1992). The intelligence that one culture valued highly may not have been valued highly by another. However, Gardener’s theory also met some controversy. The most controversial aspect of his theory was that all forms of intelligence were of equal value (Wood, Wood, & Boyd, 2011).

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

     Robert Sternberg was also critical of the g-factor. In turn, he also developed his own multiple intelligence theory. The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence concluded that there were three types of intelligence. Sternberg believed that each of these intelligences are independent and that each individual had a distinct blend of these abilities (Howard, McGee, Shin, & Shia, 2001). The three intelligences included in this theory are componential, experiential, and contextual. Componential intelligence is also called analytical intelligence. This intelligence is used in analyzing, evaluating, explaining, comparing, and contrasting (Howard, McGee, Shin, & Shia, 2001). This intelligence is the same as the intelligence studied with traditional IQ tests. Experiential intelligence is also called creative intelligence. This intelligence is used in creating, designing, discovering, inventing, applying problem – solving processes to unfamiliar problems, and generating new ideas (Howard, McGee, Shin, & Shia, 2001). The third intelligence is contextual or practical intelligence. This intelligence is used to utilize, implement, and apply problem – solving processes to familiar problems (Howard, McGee, Shin, & Shia, 2001). Those individuals with high contextual intelligence are motivated by knowledge. Sternberg applied his theory to the concept of wisdom (Santrock, 2010). It was his belief that contextual intelligence was needed for wisdom. 

Evaluating the Effectiveness of Intelligence Testing

     Intelligence tests were devised to quantify the level of intelligence in an individual (McGraw Hill, 2010). Most intelligence tests measure only analytic intelligence. The main concerns with intelligence testing are the validity and reliability of the tests. This includes whether or not the test was influenced. It is believed in the psychological field that intelligence cannot be understood outside of its cultural context (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Intelligence may be understood differently in cultures. Because of this, there may be ethnic differences in IQ scores (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). To use intelligence tests reliably, tests should be culture – fair. The evaluator should avoid stereotyping. Because of the theories of multiple intelligences, intelligence tests have been developed to demonstrate the different intelligences. In these tests, more than one answer may be correct, thereby demonstrating the different intelligences.  

    

   Conclusion

      Through the works of Gardener and Sternberg, a greater understanding of intelligence has been developed. While both theories have been met with criticism, the theories also explain the cultural differences of intelligence. By using the tests developed by the multiple intelligence theorists, understanding of how an individual is more intelligent in one area than another is formed. Therefore, the cultural similarities and differences can be studied and explained.                                                              

 

References

Campbell, B. (1992). Multiple intelligences in action. Childhood Education, 68(4), 197.

Howard, B. C., McGee, S., Shin, N., & Shia, R. (2001). The triarchic theory of intelligence and computer - based inquiry learning. Educational Technology, Research, and Development, 49(4), 49.

Lewis, A. C. (2008). Multiple Intelligences Theory. The Education Digest, 73(9), 74.

McGraw Hill (2010). Psychsmart. New York, NY: Author.

Morgan, H. (1996). An analysis of Gardener's theory of multiple intelligence. Roeper Review, 18(4), 263.

Santrock, J. W. (2010). Children (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross - Cultural psychology: critical thinking and contemporary applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/ Allyn and Bacon.

Wood, S. E., Wood, E. G., & Boyd, D. (2011). The world of psychology (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.

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Traditional and Non Traditional Culture

A collaboration between B. Edwards, D. Mehrmann, and C. Swarmer.

Traditional and Non Traditional Culture

Culture is a set of attitudes, behaviors, and symbols shared by a large group of people and usually communicated from one generation to the next.  Attitudes include beliefs (political, ideological, religious, moral, etc.), values, general knowledge (empirical and theoretical), opinions, superstitions, and stereotypes. Behaviors include a wide variety of norms, roles, customs, traditions, habits, practices, and fashions. Symbols represent things or ideas, the meaning of which is bestowed on them by people (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).

India Beliefs Compared to United States

It is the source of numerous world religions, and you'll run into every last one of them in great measure. Individuals from different religions – Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Sikh, Buddhist, and Jain make up India and every neighborhood loans its uncommon mark of society to the nation. India will hit you with its sheer size, its cornucopia of social holidays, its showy celebrations and the rave of its commercial centers (The Library of Congress Country Studies, n.d.)

Inside India, on a regular premise, the majority of individuals participate in custom movements that are persuaded by religious frameworks that owe much to the past however are persistently developing. Religion, then, is a standout amongst the most imperative features of Indian history and contemporary life (The Library of Congress Country Studies, n.d.)

The United States of America is the most religious and most religiously different of all Western industrialized countries. American political and social history are incomprehensible without references to its religious history, so persuasive have religious bunches and belief system been throughout the hundreds of years. Especially fascinating is the way that their religious differences and religious dedication is improved by the customary partition of church and state - something which preservationist religious gathers look to undermine  (American Religion: Religious Groups, History, Beliefs in America, n.d.)

Politic issues in India happens inside the system of an elected Westminster-style Parliamentary majority rule sacred republic, in which the President of India is head of state and the Prime Minister of India is the head of government.  India is as a country has been labeled as a sovereign communist common equitable republic. As the United States, India has had an elected type of government since it embraced its constitution. On the other hand, the focal government in India has more terrific power in connection to its states, and its focal government is designed after the British parliamentary framework (Ask.com, n.d.).

India Values Compared to United States

Socioeconomic factors can affect the variety of values and expectations from culture to culture (Shiraev & Levy, 2010).  The United States and India share some similarities as well as differences in their values and expectations of marriage, family, and religion.  The United States is considered a nontraditional culture while India is considered a traditional culture. 

            Marriage is a treasure in both the American and Indian culture.  Nonetheless, American beliefs on marriage are romantic love.  This belief discloses that all of us have a soul mate.  When that soul mate is found the result will be a relationship of wedded bliss until they are parted by death.  Indian nuptial relations seem to materialize more as a result of a purposeful decisive factor.  Without hesitation, Indian marriages are established on the responsibility to the family rather than an individual ambition toward closeness and a shared foundation (Sastry, 2009). In the Indian culture, the majority of marriages are established based upon age, religion, education, and socioeconomic rank (Sastry, 2009).  In American culture, most marriages are represented by a large degree of closeness and passionate relations, which is more of individualistic values.  In Indian marriages, noble servitude is respected and added contentment and personal comfort is inferior to other family ties, which is more of collectivist values.  According to Lasallian Education (2013), Americans are famous for a controlling sense of individualism.  For the most part American’s chief regard is in the idea of following one’s own path in life, rather than to the concern and devotion of the family and community reminiscent of the Indian culture.  This may appear as self-interest to different cultures. 

            There are numerous ethnic and religious groups in the Indian culture.  Some ethnic and religious groups consist of Islamic, Buddhist, Jainism, and Christian groups as well as tribes and castes (Advameg, Inc., 2013).  Nearly all religious groups trust in the afterlife with the exception of the Hindu faith.  Similar to the Indian Culture, American culture is composed of a diversity of religious groups as well.  Christians, Roman Catholics, and Judaism are among some of the prevalent religious groups (USAOnline, 2013).  Conversely, a huge sum of Americans do not have a religious position of compassion and are deemed nonreligious, secular, or atheists; implying that they do not believe in God.  Even though the traditional culture of India is similar to the nontraditional culture of the United States, they are extremely diverse cultures in relation to values and expectations.

India Behaviors Compared to United States

The behaviors found in India are consistent with the beliefs and values found within the country. In India, women are looked at as important and treated as such. Women walk behind men for protection, are the ruler of the home life, and wear red dots as a symbol of marriage (Sengupta, 2008). Most marriages are arranged based on social status. Divorce is rare as the belief in India is that marriage is eternal. The behavior of addressing each other in India is also rooted in their values. The calling of one by first name is reserved for friends or siblings of similar age. Elders are also respected by Indians. Examples include refraining from calling an elder by first name, not remaining sitting when an elder enters a room, and refraining from smoking and drinking in front of elders. Other behaviors such as eating and meditation are linked to the Indian beliefs and values found in religion. Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism are popular religions in India. Due to the beliefs of these religions, many are vegetarians. Indians also practice meditation and yoga as a holistic practice. In India, privacy is not regarded as important. Income and health matters are public and parents are allowed to speak of such matters about their adult children without permission. Crime is low in India and few carry guns. Personal hygiene behaviors in India are also different than in the United States. Products such as toilet paper, handkerchiefs, and paper tissue are not customary; instead water is used in private (Sengupta, 2008). People in India live within their means which includes the bartering of services if money is not available.

These behaviors are different than those typically found in the modern United States. Marriage in the United States is typically for love and rarely arranged. Divorce has also become a common behavior in the United States. The behavior of calling one by their first name is common across all generations. While respecting elders is found in the United States, it is expected in India. Vegetarianism is found in the United States most commonly because of personal beliefs rather than cultural beliefs. In the United States, privacy is expected in regards to personal matters. Violence is increasing and gun ownership is more common than in India. Where the behaviors of India are rooted in cultural beliefs and values, the behaviors of the United States are more commonly rooted in personal beliefs and values.

Conclusion

Using the idea of critical thinking in evaluating and analyzing the cultures of India and the United States has revealed considerable distinctions as well as likenesses in the two cultures among values, beliefs, and behaviors.  In several cases the similarities and dissimilarities differ, depending on the area in the United States.  Different areas of the United States partake in and value diverse ideologies than other areas in contrast to the Indian culture that in general differ rather on their spiritual viewpoint than their location.   In addition, the United States consists of various cultures that have been acquired and combined into American culture.  In conclusion, the traditional culture of India and the nontraditional culture of the United States was analyzed and compared to explain the differences among their values, beliefs, and behaviors.

References

Advameg, Inc. (2013).  Countries and their cultures:  Cultures of India.  Retrieved from

            http://www.everyculture.com/ge-it/india.html. 

                        

American Religion: Religious Groups, History, Beliefs in America. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://atheism.about.com/od/religioninamerica/American_Religion_Religious_Groups_History_Beliefs_in_America.htm

Lasallian Education (2013).  Culture of the United States.  Retrieved from https://www.lewisu.edu/studentservices/iss/usaculture.htm.

Sastry, J. (2009).  Household structure, satisfaction, and distress in India and the United States:  A Comparative Cultural Examination.  Journal of Comparative Family Studies, 30(1), 135-152. 

Sengupta, A. N. (2008, March 06). Cultural Differences between America and India. Retrieved from http://www.now2gether.org/index.htm

Shiraev, E. & Levy, D. (2010).  Cross-Cultural Psychology:  Critical thinking and contemporary application (4th ed.).  Boston:  Pearson/Allyn Bacon. 

The Library of Congress Country Studies. (n.d.). Religions of India. Retrieved from http://www.photius.com/religion/india_religious_life.html

USAOnline (2013).  Religion in the United States.  Retrieved from http://www.theusaonline.com/people/religious.htm. 

ask.com. (n.d.). Politics Of India. Retrieved from http://www.ask.com/wiki/Politics_of_India

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Introduction to Cross - Cultural Psychology

Introduction to Cross - Cultural Psychology

     Cross - cultural psychology is a subfield in psychology where similarities and differences between cultures are studied. Researchers use many of the same methods as other researchers when performing studies. Cultural psychology is the extensive study of one culture. These extensive studies help cross – cultural psychologists begin to understand the phenomenon associated with several cultures. Critical thinking is important in cross – cultural psychology. Critical thinking helps a researcher in drawing conclusions free of bias. 

Defining Cross - Cultural Psychology

     Cross – cultural psychology is “the critical and comparative study of cultural effects on human psychology” (Shiraev & Levy, 2010, p 2). Cross – cultural psychology draws conclusions from two or more different cultures. Cross – cultural psychologists study the diversity of cultures and the reasons for the diversity. In using the comparative approach, psychologists study “the links between cultural norms and behaviors” (Shiraev & Levy, 2010, p 2). The results of cross – cultural studies are used to explain phenomenon common in cultures. Cross – cultural psychologists study the similarities and differences across the various cultures. Studies are used to discover relationships between the individual and the culture. While conceptual clarification and theoretical integrations have been developed, the field of cross – cultural psychology still lacks a conceptual framework (Kagitcibasi & Berry, 1989).

 The Relationship between Cultural and Cross - Cultural Psychology

     Cross – cultural psychology compares two or more cultures. Cultural psychology studies one culture extensively. Cultural psychologists focus on the actions in culture; whereas, cross – cultural psychologists focus on the attributes of individuals (Triandis, 2000). Cultural psychology attempts to discover the links between culture and the psychology of those within the culture. Cultural psychology contains the belief that mental processes are caused by the relationship between the individual and culture. The differences between cultural and cross – cultural psychology are apparent. Cultural psychologists typically study cultures different from their own. Cross – cultural psychologists study cultures not too different and often study cultures where the difference is small (Triandis, 2000). Cultural psychology is the ideal approach to use when a large cultural difference exist between the researcher and participants. Alternatively, cross – cultural psychology is ideal when a smaller cultural difference exist. Cultural psychology is best used when the researcher knows little about the culture. Cross – cultural psychology identifies patterns and similarities across multiple cultures. The reliability and validity of data can be problematic in cultural psychology. The data collected may help a researcher understand but is not useful in prediction. Cross – cultural psychology may have problems in relation to the ethical acceptability of methods. Not all methods may be accepted in all cultures. The measures in cross – cultural psychology can be used various tests to test reliability and validity. Measures in cross –cultural psychology may also be used to predict criterion (Triandis, 2000). Cultural psychology is the basis of which cross –cultural psychology studies may be begun. 

Critical Thinking in Cross - Cultural Psychology

     Thinking is one of the most essential processes in humans (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Thinking is vital in learning. Thought principles, or metathoughts, are cognitive tools used for inquiry and problem solving. These principles are used to counteract thinking that may be biased, simple, rigid, lazy or sloppy (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). Researchers typically use language associated with his or her own personal values. Barnum statements and assimilation bias are examples of obstacles in critical thinking. Barnum statements have a “one size fits all” characteristic and therefore offer little value to research. Assimilation bias allows information to be subjected to distortion. Many people identify phenomenon to his or her own mental representations. Critical thinking helps a researcher eliminate the biases presented in humans. In order to obtain a clear understanding of culture, one must cast aside his or her own prejudices and use critical thinking skills to reach a clear, unbiased conclusion.

 Methodology in Cross - Cultural Psychology

     Cross – cultural research has four basic goals. These goals include description, interpretation, prediction, and management (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). First, a researcher identifies these goals. Second, an appropriate methodological approach is determined. Research methodology is divided into two categories: quantitative and qualitative. Quantitative research involves the measurement of certain aspects; whereas, qualitative research is used when measuring variables is difficult. Examples of these difficulties include subjects not being able to read or use the answer scales, no measurement instrument available, variables not conceptually defined or when experiences of researcher may influence the research (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). The two most important statistical methods are correlation and t – test. Qualitative research is conducted in the natural setting. Comparativist strategy focuses on similarities and differences in measures in cultures. There are several strategies used in choosing a sample for study. These depend on the type of study being performed. The first strategy is availability or convenience sampling where what is available is used. The second strategy is systematic sampling. In this strategy, a sample is chosen based on a theory. The third strategy is random sampling where a large sample of cultures is chosen at random. Cross – cultural psychologists use the typical methods of investigation, including observation, survey, experiment, content – analysis, psychobiography, meta – analysis, and focus – group methods (Shiraev & Levy, 2010). There are two approaches to analyzing data: absolutist and relativist. Absolutists believe a phenomenon is the same in most cultures; however, certain behaviors may vary. Relativists believe behavior may only be understood within its given culture. 

 Conclusion

      The similarities and differences across cultures are being studied and understood in cross – cultural psychology. Using critical thinking and research methods, psychologists are learning how behaviors vary across cultures. Cross – cultural psychology compares and contrasts two or more cultures in an attempt to understand behavior in relation to culture. Psychologists use the data collected in cultural psychology studies to aid in the study of cross – cultural psychology. Through these studies, cultures may be better understood by those different than the culture.

References

Kagitcibasi, C., & Berry, J. W. (1989). CROSS - CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY: Current research and trends. Annual Review of Psychology, 40(1), 493-531.

Shiraev, E. B., & Levy, D. A. (2010). Cross - Cultural psychology: Critical thinking and contemporary applications (4th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn Bacon.

Triandis, H. C. (2000). Dialects between culture and cross - cultural psychology. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 3(3), 185-195.

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